of Latin and Greek words, which were taken direct from the original languages. Many of these importations have since been discarded. It often happens that the same classical word has given rise to two words in English, one coming to us through Norman-French, the other taken direct from Latin. In such cases, the former is the shorter and more corrupted form. Compare, for example, minster and monastery, bishop and episcopal, hotel and hospital, reason and rational. 4. Words of Miscellaneous origin.-The extensive intercourse maintained during the last three hundred years with all parts of the world naturally led to the introduction of words from most languages of importance, relating to natural productions, works of art, or social institutions, with which this intercourse first made us acquainted. Thus it has come about that the two chief constituents of modern English are Anglo-Saxon and Latin, mixed with a small proportion of words of miscellaneous origin. Most of the Teutonic elements of English were introduced by the Saxons and Angles. But the Scandinavian races are also Teutonic, and a good many words of Teutonic origin were introduced into English by the Danes and Norsemen, who established themselves on the eastern coast of our island. As a general rule (admitting, of course, of numerous exceptions) it will be found that words relating to common natural objects, to home life, to agriculture, and to common trades and processes, are usually of Saxon origin. Words relating to the higher functions of social life-religion, law, government, and war, to the less obvious processes of the mind, and to matters connected with art, science, and philosophy, are commonly of classical (mostly of Latin) origin. Most words of three or more syllables, and a large number of those of two, are of classical origin. The Saxon element predominates (though very far from exclusively) in words of one or two syllables. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1 2 3 GENERAL REMARKS. WHEN We wish to express what is passing in our minds, we talk, or else write down certain marks or signs, which people have agreed shall stand for the sounds which we utter when we talk. That which we speak with our voice, or write down to represent what we speak, is called speech or language. Grammar (from the Greek gramma, ‘letter') is the science which treats about speech or language. 4 All people do not utter the same sounds, or write the same signs to express what they think. There are different languages or tongues made use of by different nations, as the English language, the French language, the Latin language, &c.; and since these differ widely from each other, it is necessary to have a separate grammar for each of them. These separate grammars, however, agree in many respects, and are all parts of the general science of grammar. 5 6 7 Speech or language is made up of words. A word is a significant combination of articulate sounds. A collection of words arranged so as to convey some complete sense, is called a sentence (Latin sententia, a thought or opinion'); as, "The boy learns his lesson; "The cat has caught a mouse. The words of which a sentence is made up are of different sorts. Thus in the sentence, "The bird flies swiftly," bird is the name of an animal; the points out which bird is meant; flies expresses an action, which it is asserted that the bird performs; swiftly denotes the manner in which that action is performed. The different sorts of words which a language contains are called Parts of Speech. Spoken words are made up of different sounds, and written words are made up of different signs, called letters (Lat. litera), which are used to represent the different sounds of which spoken words are composed. 8 9 10 When, in writing a word, letters are used which are not sounded in speaking, those letters are said to be mute. Thus in the word knot, the k is mute; in the word awe, the e is mute. That part of grammar which treats of the letters of which words are composed, and of the proper mode of writing and spelling words, is called Orthography (from the Greek orthos, 'right,' and grapho, ‘I write'). That part of grammar which treats of separate words, or of the parts of speech separately, showing the mode in which they are formed and the changes which they undergo, is called Etymology (from the Greek etymos, 'true,' and logos, account.' 6 11 That part of grammar which treats of the mode in which words are combined so as to form sentences, and sentences combined with one another, is called Syntax (from the Greek syn, 'together,' and taxis, arrangement'). 12 13 14 ORTHOGRAPHY. The elementary sounds of the English language are repre- A, a: B, b: C, c: D, d: E, e: F, f: G, g: H, h: I, : P, p: Q, q: R, r: Y, y: Z, z. The whole collection of letters is called the Alphabet. Alpha and Beta are the names of the first two letters of the Greek alphabet. The English Alphabet, with the exception of the letter w, is taken from that used by the Romans, who, however, employed the letters k, y, and z only in writing foreign (especially Greek) words, and sounded v like our w. The Latin Alphabet, in its turn, was derived from the Greek, and that again from the Phoenician. The letters a, e, i, o, and u, are called Vowels (Latin vocalis). They can be fully sounded by themselves. The remaining letters are called Consonants (Latin, con, 'together,' sonans, sounding'). They cannot be fully sounded without having a Vowel either before or after them. * Capital letters are used at the beginning of proper names, for the nominative case singular of the personal pronoun of the first person, and for any noun, adjec tive, or pronoun, used in speaking of the Divine Being. They may also be used at the beginning of a common noun, when it is used in a special or technical sense, as Mood, Voice, Person. Adjectives derived from proper nouns are also written with capitals. 15 16 There are thirteen simple vowel sounds in English: the sounds of a in tall, father, fate, fat; the sounds of e in met and mete; the sound of i in pin; the sounds of o in note and not; the sounds of u in rule, pull, fur, and but. These sounds are expressed in many various ways. The letter a represents four simple vowel sounds, as in fate, fall, far, fat. The letter e represents three simple vowel sounds, as in mēte, pět, herd. The letter i represents one simple vowel sound, as in pit; and one diphthongal sound, as in bite. The letter o represents three simple vowel sounds, as in poke, pot, for. The letter u represents four simple vowel sounds, as in rūde, pull, fun, fur. The sound of a in fate is also represented by the written diphthongs ai (braid), ay (say), ea (great), ei (neigh), ey (prey), ao (gaol), au (gauge). The sound of a in fall is the same as that of o in for, and is also represented by the written diphthongs au (fraud), aw (claw), oa (broad), ou (ought). The sound of a in far is also represented by e (if followed by r) in such words as clerk, Derby, Berkshire (when pronounceá Darby, Barkshire), and by the written diphthongs au (aunt), ua (guard), ea (heart). The sound of a in fat is also represented by ua (guarantee), and ai (plaid). The sound of e in mete is also represented by the written diphthongs ea (seat), ee (feet), eo (people), ie (chief), ei (receive), ey (key), ae (æther), oe (Phænician), ay (quay), i (marine). The sound of e in pet is also represented by a (many), ai (said), ay (says), u (bury), ea (tread), ue (guest), ie (friend), ei (heifer), eo (Leonard, Geoffrey). The sound of e in herd is also represented by i (bird), u (curse), y (myrrh), ea (earth). The sound of i in pit is also represented by y (syllable), u (busy), e (pretty), ui (build), ie (sieve). The sound of i in bite is also represented by y (thy), ey (eye), ei (height), ie (dies), uy (buy), ui (guide). The sound of o in poke is also represented by oa (coat), oe (toe), ou (soul), ow (low), ew (sew), ow (owe), oo (door). The sound of o in pot is also represented by a (what). The sound of o in for is also represented by a in fall, &c. (See above.) The sound of u in rude is also represented by o (move), vo (rood, good), ew (flew), ue (blue), ui (fruit), ou (through), oe (shoe); ŭ in full = = oo in good. The sound of u in fun is also represented by o (love), oe (does), ov (flood), ou (rough). The sound of u in fur is also represented by e, i, y, u, ea. (See above). Diphthongs are of two kinds, spoken or sonant diphthongs and written diphthongs. The former are combinations of two vowel sounds. There are four of them 1. i, as in bile. (See above.) This sound is made up of the a in father, and the e in mete. 2. oi, as in hoist. This diphthong is also written oy (boy), and uoy (buoy). It is made up of the sound of a in fall and e in mete. 3. eu (as in eulogy). This diphthong is also expressed in writing by u (mute), ew or ewe (few, ewe), eau (beauty), ui (suit), ue (hue), yu (yule,. 4. ou (as in noun). This is also expressed in writing by ow (now). The other written diphthongs, as has already been seen, represent simple vowel sounds. The letters w and y are commonly called semi-vowels. When they are followed by a vowel sound in the same syllable their sound approaches that of a consonant, as in win, twin, you, yonder. When a vowel precedes them in the same syllable they combine with the preceding vowel to form a diphthong; as awe, how, dray, bey, buy. Y is a pure vowel whenever it is followed by a consonant (as in Yttria). The letters 1, m, n, and r, are called Liquids. They can be partially sounded by themselves. J, 8, x, and 2 are called Sibilants (from the Latin sibilare, to hiss'). The other consonants are called Mutes. When sounded after a vowel, they stop the passage of the breath more completely than the liquids and sibilants do. Of the mutes, b, p, f, and are called labials or lip-letters (from the Latin labium, 'a lip'); d, t, th (for which in Anglo-Saxon there were two symbols, for the sound at the beginning of thine, and p for the sound at the beginning of thin*) are called dentals or teeth-letters (from the Latin dens, 'tooth'); and g, k, hard c, and ch (as in loch) are called gutturals or throat-letters (Latin guttur,' throat'). The Mutes are also classified, not according to the organ by which they are pronounced, but according to certain differences in the mode in which the consonantal sound is pronounced. P, t, and k (or hard c), are called thin or sharp mutes; b, d, g are called middle or flat mutes; f, and v, th in thin, and th in thine, ch in loch, and gh in lough are called aspirated mutes. The aspirates may themselves be divided into sharp aspirates (f, th in thin, ch), and flat aspirates (v, th in thine, gh). The sibilants & and z bear the same relation to each other as p and b, being a sharp sibilant, z a flat sibilant. A syllable (Greek syllabe, ‘a taking together ') is a single vowel, or a collection of letters pronounced together, and containing only one vowel sound. A word which consists of a single syllable is called a Monosyllable (Greek monos,' single '), such as man, horse, hut. A word which consists of two syllables is called a Disyllable; as folly, learning. A word that consists of three syllables is called a Trisyllable, as vanity, loveliness. A word that consists of more than three syllables is called a Polysyllable (Greek polys, many '), as singularity.† When a syllable beginning with a vowel is added to a monosyllable, or a word accented on the last syllable, ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, the final consonant is doubled. As sin, sinner; thin, thinner; rob, robber; sit, sitting; begin, beginning; expel, The y in the old-fashioned way of writing the (y or ye) is a corruption of þ. The proper way of dividing words into syllables is not yet quite settled. The methods adopted in most spelling-books are extremely arbitrary, not to say stupid. Two very absurd rules commonly laid down are, that it two consonants come together between vowels, they should be divided," and that "each separate syllable should, as far as possible, begin with a consonant.' In accordance with these rules, one of the commonest spelling-books gives us the following divisions: - thirs-ty, trea-tise, righ-teous, poi-gnant, be nign, e-clipse, a-noint, bur-gher, cou-mer, fron-tier, guar-dian. Such divisions have neither reason nor couvenience to justify them; they are simply ridiculous. It is impossible to lay down any rules of universal application, but the principle to be kept in view should be to divide words so that the syllabic division may, as far as possible, coincide with the etymological division, as in right-eous, front-ier, an-oint, guard-ian, burgh er. So cap-it-al not ca-pi-tal), soft-en (not sof-ten), &c. |