283

281

Words like concerning, respecting, regarding, pending, &c., are not proper prepositions. Some are active participles erroneously substi tuted for passive participles, agreeing with a noun used absolutely. Thus, "considering his conduct was "his conduct considered," as we still say "All things considered." Others are participles used impersonally. It is difficult, however, sometimes to avoid treating them as prepositions, as in " He spoke concerning himself." They may then be termed quasi-prepositions. Some writers use despite as a preposition. This is wrong. Despite is a noun, and is properly employed in the phrase in despite of. Notwithstanding is certainly not a preposition; it is a participle agreeing with the noun that follows in the nominative absolute. It is sometimes placed after the noun, especially in legal phraseology. During is a word of the same sort. It is a participle qualifying the noun that follows. Save (Fr. sauf) and except are of French origin, and are remnants of Latin ablatives absolute in which salvo- and excepto- were used.* In old English out-taken is found for except. In Shakspeare we still find excepted: "Always excepted my dear Claudio."

Many of the above words are adverbs as well as prepositions. The mode in which they are used will always determine which part of speech they are. When they are prepositions there is always a substantive, expressed or understood, which they govern. (But compare § 273.) In, He laid one book above the other," above is a preposition. In, One was below, the other above," below and above are adverbs. But, except, and since, are also used as conjunctions.

CONJUNCTION.

285 Words which unite other words or sentences are called connective or conjunctive words. Connective words are found among various parts of speech. Who is a connective word which is a substantive. Which is a connective word which is an adjective. Whither is a connective word which is an adverb. The name conjunction is applied to a particular class of connective words. (The name conjunction comes from the Latin con, together,' and jungo, ‘I join.')

The conjunction but used to be written bot. The preposition but is worth noticing because it is the only preposition except to which may be tollowed by the infinitive mood; as, "He did nothing but laugh." But being a preposition, it follows that such phrases as none but he are ungrammatical. A preposition must have the accusative case after it.

*This point is excellently treated by Dr. Adams (Eng. Lang. § 497).

286 Conjunctions are connective words which are neither substantives, adjectives, nor adverbs: or, in other words, conjunctions are connective words which are neither relative pronouns nor relative adverbs.

Conjunctions may be divided into two classes:-1. Coordinative Conjunctions; 2. Subordinative Conjunctions. 287 1. Co-ordinative Conjunctions are those which unite either co-ordinate clauses, that is, clauses which stand in the same relation to the entire sentence (§ 402), or words which stand in the same relation to some other word in the sentence.

The co-ordinative conjunctions are and, either, or, neither, nor, but.

288 2. Subordinative conjunctions are those which unite subordinate clauses (see § 412) to the principal clause of a sentence. They never couple words only.

289

The Subordinative Conjunctions are for, since (expressing a reason); as (in the sense of since, in such a sentence as," As you say so, I must believe it"), whereas, because, if, whether, though, although, albeit, unless, but,† lest, that‡ (in some of its meanings), ere.

For the further illustration of this classification the learner is referred to the Syntax.

"He

The words before, since, after, until, are usually set down as conjunctions, but they are in reality prepositions. In such sentences as, arrived before I did;""He left soon after I did;" the conjunction that has in reality been omitted. We find it expressed in old-fashioned English; as, "Before that certain came from James, he did eat with the Gentiles" (Galat. ii. 12). "Surely after that I was turned I repented, and after that I was instructed I smote upon my thigh" (Jerem. xxxi. 19). The construction really consists of a preposition followed by a substantive clause. After [that] I arrived is tantamount to after my arrival. (The use of after as a conjunction may be compared with that of nachdem in German.) Except, when followed by a sub

*Most grammarians distribute conjunctions into copulative and disjunctive conjunctions. A copulative conjunction is a joining word which couples together. A disjunctive conjunction is a joining word which disjoins. A person need be very keen-sighted to see the sense or utility of this classification.

But, when it is a subordinative conjunction, has a meaning different from what it has as a co-ordinative conjunction. It is, in fact, the preposition but = without or except, followed by a substantive clause, as, "He never tried any plan but it succeeded." Ben Jonson notices that in old English it had the sense of unless, as "They cannot have it but you give it." The preposition without is still often used in this manner.

The conjunction that, used to introduce substantive clauses, was originally the neuter of the demonstrative. "I know that he wrote the letter," is "He wrote the letter; I know that."

In old English there is a curious use of that after when, if, &c., as, "When that the poor have cried, Cæsar hath wept " (Shakspeare, J. C.). In such case when that may be regarded as a compound, like where-as (Abbott, Sh. Gr. p. 67).

stantive clause, has exactly the same force as when followed by a simple substantive. "Except ye repent" is "The case of your repentance being excepted."

291 Some conjunctions are correlatives; as, neither—nor, either-or, whether-or.

292

Many words which are frequently set down as conjunctions are really simple adverbs, not having even a connective force, except in so far as every demonstrative word, which refers to something that has already been said, causes a connexion in thought,* though a mere demonstrative is not, grammatically speaking, a connective word. Such words as therefore, still, yet, nevertheless, notwithstanding, consequently, however, hence, accordingly, likewise, also, are adverbs, inasmuch as they indicate some of the conditions or circumstances under which the predicate of the clause to which they belong is asserted of the subject.+ (See further in the Syntax, under the head of Collateral Sentences, § 408.)

INTERJECTION.

293 Interjections are words which are used to express some emotion of the mind, but do not enter into the construction of sentences; as, Oh! O! Ah! Ha! Alas! Fie! Pshaw ! Hurrah! Lo! Yes, Yea, Aye, No, &c.

In written language interjections are usually followed by what is called a mark of admiration (!). The word interjection comes from the Latin inter, 'between,' and jacio, ‘I cast.'

* As "He suddenly lost all his fortune. This was a great blow to him." No one would treat this as a relative or connective pronoun in such a sentence. It is simply absurd to take the two clauses as anything else than independent collateral sentences. The same is obviously true of such a sentence as, "He was idle. For that reason he did not succeed." But put, instead of for that reason, its exact grammatical equivalent therefore, and half the writers of grammars will tell us that therefore is a conjunction. There is no sense in this. Mr. Bain (Eng. Gram. p. 64, &c.) even sets down partly, first, then, secondly, further, now, well, as coordinating conjunctions. Surely this is utterly wrong.

A proper attention to the nature and use of adverbs will enable us to correct mistakes on the subject which are to be found in the grammars of most languages. Even the best Latin and Greek grammars are not free from them. Thus, quum in Latin is an adverb, not a conjunction, even when, for the sake of convenience, we translate it by since. The explanation is not that quum is sometimes an adverb and sometimes a conjunction, but that the Romans used a word meaning when in cases where we use the word since. Quum is in form and meaning the correlative of tum, and, like it, refers both to time and to attendant circumstances. So utas, ut = how, ut = that, ut when, is the same part of speech in all these uses, and to a Roman ear conveyed in all cases the same fundamental meaning. The adverbial force of ut may be indicated by treating it as other relatives are often treated in translation; namely, by substituting for it a demonstrative with a conjunction. As qui and he, so ut and so. Thus, tam validus est ut nemo eum superare possit, "he has such and such a degree of strength, and so no one can overcome him." The ut refers to the circumstances under which the verb possit is affirmed of the subject. To set down phrases like howbeit, in as far as, &c., as compound conjunctions, is quite inadmissible. Each word in such phrases admits of being parsed separately.

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS AND FORMS.

294 The pupil who has carefully studied the definitions of the Parts of Speech already given, will be prepared to comprehend the classification of the constituent parts of language contained in the annexed table.

Language is made up of words and forms. By these we express all the conceptions that the mind is capable of forming. All thought-and, consequently, all speech-is about something. The basis of every thought, therefore, is the notion of a thing, that is to say, of whatever we can make an object of thought. The words that stand for things are nouns and pronouns.

Besides things themselves, we form conceptions of the actions and attributes of things. The words that express these are adjectives and veròs. Both these classes of words express attributive notions, the difference between them being that the verb expresses an attribute together with the idea of assertion or predication; the adjective does not assert the connection between the thing and its attribute, but assumes it; or (to borrow a metaphor from mechanics) the adjective is a static attributive, the verb is a dynamic attributive. The adjective is a sort of weakened verb.

Further, besides things and their attributes, we form conceptions of the limitations of these attributes—the mode, manner, time, place, or other conditions under which the attribute is regarded as attached to the thing. These conditions are expressed by adverbs.

These are all the simple notions that we can form. But when we think, we combine notions together, and this combination is represented in language partly by words called relational words, that is, words that denote the relation between notions and thoughts, and partly by grammatical forms and inflexions. There are two sorts of relational words, prepositions and conjunctions. Prepositions only denote the relation of one notion to another. (See Definition of Preposition, § 277.) Conjunctions denote the relation of one thought to another, a thought being already the combination of at least two notions. The relation of a verb to its subject; of an adjective to a noun; of an object to the word that governs it; and of an adverbial adjunct to an attributive word, is indicated by grammatical forms and inflexions.

CONCEPTIONS.

Notional Words.