tution and the law. Intelligent, affectionate, years of neglect with undue partiality, cergrave, patient, and long-suffering, the Indians tainly formed a favourable estimate of the possess many claims to sympathy and respect. future. Education is becoming a subject of It is a touching proof of their confidence in primary importance, the press is said to each other, and of the almost total absence of diffuse sound principles and to be conducted crime, that the doors of their huts are rarely with moderation, and the recent religious closed, and that their property is as safe in movement will doubtless awaken the people their absence as if it were protected by locks to greater intellectual activity, and perhaps and bars. Their courage has been repeatedly lead to very important results. Peru is cerproved in the extensive but ill-organised tainly not the least advanced of the South revolts by which from time to time they have American States; but the neighbouring Reattempted to regain their independence; public of Chili has acquired a more respectheir probity is equally beyond impeachment; table political position, and its people have and it is the opinion of one fully competent displayed of late a creditable aptitude for to judge, that there is no safer region in the self-government. In Peru the archives of the world for the defenceless traveller than the Spanish viceroys have been recently diliplateaux of the Peruvian Cordillera.* gently explored, and the reports relating to the Spanish administration of the country have been for the first time published. They are said to detail with terrible minuteness the manner in which a country rich in all the elements of wealth and happiness was barbarusly plundered, depopulated, and oppressed. They will serve a high purpose if they should inspire the Spanish American people with an earnest desire to redress the multiplied wrongs which their ancestors committed; and if the fragment of a great empire which they conquered should eventually become the secure inheritance of their children's children, may they prove to the Indian race that, if their ancient institutions' have irretrievably perished, they have exchanged a paternal despotism which enfeebled while it protected them, for the innumerable blessings of modern civilisation and the regulated enjoyment of freedom! This interesting country may not have passed through all the changes incidental to a state of society in which an antagonisin of races exists; but, notwithstanding the political aspirations of the Indians, it seems likely that the Spanish Americans will maintain their ascendancy, and perhaps conduce to the social elevation of the people whom their progenitors enslaved. Any change in their condition will, we trust, be brought about rather by education and opinion than by a renewed appeal to arms. There are many public men in Peru, we know, of high character, and who are fully sensible of their responsibilities; and the late General Miller, who could not be suspected of regarding the country which had repaid his services by *Markham's Travels,' p. 178. The Memoirs of General Miller,' published many years ago, give the most complete account of the War of Independence. He died in October, 1861, on board of a British ship of war in Callao Roads, and his remains were interred with all the honours which the Peruvian Government could show. Mr. Markham, in the brief memoir of this eminent soldier, which he has given in the Appendix to his work, states that when the body was being embalmed twenty-two wounds were counted in different parts, and two bullets were extracted from it. In February, 1839, on the overthrow of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, General Miller was banished, with many other able and distinguished men, whose names were removed from the Army List. This unjust and illegal act was subsequently cancelled by a law of Congress. After leaving Peru in 1839, General Miller was appointed in 1843 Her Majesty's Commissioner and ConsulGeneral for the Islands in the Pacific. It is satisfactory to be able to record, for the honour of the Peruvian nation, that the whole of his claims were acknowledged by Congress without a dissentient voice. But unfortunately the executive in Peru is still able to set the laws passed by the representa tives of the people at defiance; delays and evasions were resorted to by Castilla, and the last days of a man from whom Peru had perhaps received more valuable services than from any of her own sons, were embittered by the treatment which he experienced from the President of the Republic. ART. II.-1. Papers by the Central Society 4. 5. Handbook of Mechanics' Institutions. By secretary. Science as bearing on the meW. H. J. Traice. London, 1856. chanical arts was the chief topic of the lec 6. Report of the Yorkshire Union of Me-tures which were delivered. The year 1823 chanics' Institutes. Leeds, 1861. 7. Social Science; being Selections from John Cassell's Prize Essays by Working Men and Women. With Notes. London, • 1861. saw like efforts in London. An article in the Mechanics' Magazine' had suggested the formation of an institution for the improvement of working mechanics in science, art, and manufactures. Dr. Birkbeck, who was then in London, zealously espoused the project, which soon reckoned the names of Brougham, Denman, Hobhouse, and Lushington among its patrons. The London Mechanics' Institutution was forthwith founded, and the next ten years witnessed a very energetic movement in. favour of similar undertakings throughout/ the kingdom. It is man's lot to live by the sweat of his brow; but the bitterness of that doom is not complete, unless man be tied to the earth with the double chain of toil and of ignorance, and debarred from that alleviation of his lot which is afforded by his natural heavenward glance, his capacity for intellectual enjoyment and progress, his sense of beauty and of moral fitness. To refresh the jaded mind, and to give it a healthy action during the brief interval in which the working man is permitted to forget that he is but a part of a machine, and to engage in tasks and occupations of his own, is the professed object of what are called Mechanics' Institutes; and those who consider the vast influence which they are capable of exercising either for good Certain it is that the patrons of Mechanics' or for evil, will pardon us if we devote a few Institutes were chiefly drawn from the ranks. pages to the examination of the present con- of the advanced Reformers, and hence the dition of these bodies, and of the principles whole movement was looked upon as closely upon which they ought to be conducted. connected with the progress of liberal The germ of these institutions is perhaps to opinions. It was probably from this cause be traced to Birmingham. In the year 1790 that many of the clergy and others who the Sunday-school teachers of that town might have exercised a beneficial influence combined together to afford simple instruc-kept aloof from it. This was not very untion and moral guidance to the adults who natural at that time, but it would be without had outgrown their classes. Shortly after excuse in ourselves, who live in a calmer powards the Birmingham Brotherly Society litical atmosphere. was formed, which professed a like but somewhat higher aim, for scientific lectures were delivered to which the labouring ranks were admitted gratis. It is worth notice, as indicating the character of the movement, that no one could be a member who habitually neglected public worship. Meanwhile, something similar was taking place in Scotland. About the year 1800, Dr. Birkbeck, being abont to lecture for a scientific institution in Glasgow, called Anderson's University,' had occasion personally to superintend the construction of his apparatus, and in so doing, became struck with the intelligence of the workmen, and was led to offer them a course of free lectures. They responded warmly, and came in considerable numbers. A Mechanics' Class' was then formed, and continued to exist till 1823, in which year its members ceased to attend at the Andersonian establishment, and formed a 'Glasgow Me-ties for the improvement of young men ; for though chanics' Institution' of their own. Unhappily, the question-like all questions affecting the working classes at that periodwas entangled with a political agitation. During the struggles that preceded the passing of the Reform Bill, operatives (as they began to be called) were caressed by one school of politicians, suspected by the other, and, perhaps we may be allowed to say, well understood by neither, In Edinburgh, in 1821, a 'School of Arts' was founded for the instruction of the labouring classes. Mr. Leonard Horner became its We propose, then, to make some inquiry into the subject of adult education and improvement as promoted by means of readingrooms, libraries, lectures, and evening-classes among that portion of the population which may perhaps be most conveniently marked off and described by the fact that they are in the receipt of weekly wages. * At the present time the actual number of institutions for adult improvement is unquestionably very large.. Mr. Hole, in his essay on the subject which gained a prize from the Society of Arts, and was published in 1853, calculates that institutes of the same nature, but established under various names, as mgchanics' institutes, literary societies, mental improvement societies, have increased to the number of 700, containing 120,000 members.' We do not include under this head the socie they have a certain affinity with our subject, the fact that they are intended for young men espeit. Moreover, they draw the greater part of their cially, if not exclusively, distinguishes them from members from a grade above that of the artisan. But with regard to the constitution of these societies, we may cite the Report of a Committee appointed by the Society of Arts in 1853, on the subject of Popular Education (p. 36): Mechanics' institutions are no longer institutions for mechanics; some enrol a small number of artisans, while others reckon none at all.' And again: Though still called mechanics' institutions, they are places of resort for the tradesman, the shopkeeper, and the middle-class generally of the neighbourhood.' And there is other trustworthy evidence to the same effect. * The first impulse towards the creation of institutions for the improvement of working men was almost wholly of a scientific character. It seems to have been taken for granted that, because there are striking instances of the sons of toil reaching high intellectual eminence, the whole of the mass could and would do likewise, if a fair field were afforded, and the key of knowledge put within their power. But the fact that Brindley and Stephenson and others sprang from the working classes, does not show that the whole of the working classes under favourable circumstances would be Brindleys and Stephensons. The truth is that the whole scheme was pitched far too high to be of general use. The Report of the Committee of the Society of Arts, from which we have already quoted, well says: These institutions were started somewhat in advance of their time; they were designed to lecture men on literature and science, many of whom could neither read nor write.' And when they came as in process of time they nearly all came to alter their scheme, and to admit topics of a more general kind into their libraries and lectures, they had already lost the working classes, and could not recover them. Indeed it was hardly likely that they should recover them, for too often the literature was as much above the average level of the artisan as the science had been. If, then, from these and the like causes the machinery which was set up for the purpose of bringing the working man within reach of the means of rational improvement has, to a great extent, fallen short of its object, we agree with Dr. Hudson that this fact demonstrates the necessity for creating another class of societies, to which the working operative shall alone be admissible,' or at least to which he may more readily be induced to resort.† We are happy to say that some steps have * In the School of Arts at Edinburgh, no book was admitted into the library but what related to science or art (Hole, p. 16). In some instances existing institutes might be modified so as to effect the same result, but in many cases this would be impracticable. already been taken in this direction. In many places attempts, more or less successful, have been made to create reading-rooms and libraries for bona fide working men. Among such we may name the reading. rooms maintained by railway companies and by some large manufacturing and trading partnerships for the men in their employ. Such, too, are the Lyceums and People's Institutes set up in the north of England for those who could neither pay the high subscription nor relish the advanced style of literature in the old mechanics' institute. Such, lastly, are the modest associations set on foot by many parochial clergymen or earnest laymen, in order that the mechanic may have the means of spending the evening innocently, and at the same time of acquiring some really serviceable knowledge. These prevail rather extensively, but the numbers that attend them are usually limited, and they are seldom in a very thriving condition. If more general co-operation could be obtained, they might present a valuable germ for gradual expansion. A distinction must, however, be drawn be tween institutions for mechanics and artisans, and the schemes of a kindred nature which are being multiplied on every side for the labouring poor or for the neglected and depraved. The mechanic and artisan class do not readily mix with the poor, nor even with the lower orders of unskilled labourers; and the benefit of both will, we believe, rarely be attained by the same undertaking. In the country, indeed, this distinction is less marked, but in many towns it is well defined; and attempts to fuse together skilled workmen and rough labourers are likely, we fear, to end for the most part in disappointment. If this be so, it is expedient in all cases for the promoters to settle beforehand which body of men they intend to attract, and to manage matters accordingly. We fear, however, that such efforts as those to which we have just referred have not always been preceded by much acquaintance with the habits and feelings of the working classes. And hence the project has occasionally taken not so much the shape which is really attractive to the working man, as the shape which, in the opinion of those above him, ought to attract him. Moreover, a patronising character has sometimes been allowed to attach to the whole project, which often utterly repels, and is always distasteful to the intelligent artisan. A wise man will seek in the first instance to study those whom he seeks to improve, lest offence unwittingly given should mar his best plans. And not only may groundless estrangement ensue, but grave practical blunders may be committed, from a want of acquaintance with accustomed to the public-house, though willthe feelings of the working classes. Thus, ing, it may be, to be weaned from intoxicatfor instance, the association of men and boys ing drinks, naturally desire some substitute, in the same institution may not seem at first such as tea or coffee; and as they would be sight a heinous fault. But the Report of the ready to pay for these when they consumed Yorkshire Union of Mechanics' Institutes them, no additional expense would take place tells us as the result of experience, that it in the general management. appears to be established that it is almost impracticable to unite adults and youths in the same classes. From a natural diffidence, the elders do not like to mix with their juniors in the night classes, and they are often easily and quickly surpassed by those who are younger and who have a greater aptitude than themselves; and hence, in many cases where adults have joined, after a short time their attendance has ceased.'* It is true that this refers primarily to classes for instruction, but no institution ought to be without such classes, if it be possible to have them. Moover, even in the reading-room we believe the same principle holds good. The adult who reads his paper with difficulty, and discusses the news with a limited amount of intelligence, and a still more limited power of expression, is not pleased to be outshone by a better scholar and geographer of fifteen years of age. Besides, there is a natural levity and restlessness about the manners of boys which suit ill with the gravity of grown men. No one would think of bringing boys into a club in Pall Mall; why should they be more tolerable in what is, in fact, the club of the workman! But in most cases of failure or ill success, we believe the root of the evil will be found to be the same which we have noticed in respect to the movement thirty years ago, namely, that the average mental calibre of working men has been overrated. Nowhere has this fault been committed in a greater degree than in the department of Lectures. These are frequently admirable in themselves, and full of interest for persons in the higher ranks; but when considered in reference to their professed purpose, they must often, we fear, be called brilliant failures. Even were an ardour for scientific knowledge as general as some suppose, it would be impossible for the mechanic to follow many of the lectures which are addressed to him, though styled elementary. Most lecturers take for granted an amount of previous acquaintance with the subject, or at least with other departments of knowledge leading to the subject, such as the hearers in the humbler ranks cannot possibly possess. It requires a great and continuous effort on the part of a teacher to bring himself down to the level of his audience when below that which he is accustomed to address. Thus, to give an example of our meaning, Another point, the mention of which may let us suppose that the business of the eveperhaps provoke a smile, but cannot be ning is to give an outline of astronomy. slighted with impunity, is, that ful! and com- Many lecturers would begin by assuming, plete toleration must be accorded to smoking. perhaps unconsciously, the doctrine of inertia, The pipe is deemed an indispensable comfort viz., that a body only moves in any direction by many working men, and they are apt to when acted on by some force. But if an remain deaf to every inducement so long as audience of working men were asked what it is withheld. It is not, indeed, needful that would happen to a body perfectly alone in more than one room should be set apart for space, with nothing to act on it, we suspect the smokers, for there are those of their own not a few would say that, if unsupported, it class who object to tobacco. But accommowould fall. We have ourselves received such dation of some sort must be provided for an answer under such circumstances. Hence them, or they will desert to the public-house we must begin by explaining that bodies to enjoy their pipes in peace. The truth is, only fall to the earth by reason of the earth's restraint of every kind, beyond what is abso- attraction; and that if all other bodies and lutely necessary for order and propriety, forces were removed from the one in quesshould be studiously avoided. The very tion, there would be nothing to affect it, and name of 'Free and Easy,' given to the social it would (so far as we can see) remain at meeting in the tap-room, shows plainly rest. The lecturer would thus have cleared enough what is supposed to be attractive by his ground, and would have prepared his those whose livelihood depends on conciliat-hearers to follow him. In a discourse on asing working men. We incline to think also, that in some cases institutes become unpopular from the absence of any kind of refreshment. Men tronomy to educated people, it is fair to presume that they have some slight acquaintance with the principles of statics and dynamics; but in a like discourse to a roomful of operatives, no such presumption can be made. The same is the case with other subjects. It must never be taken for granted that there has been previous training up to the point at which the subject logically commences. On the contrary, the problem is not only to state clearly the special topic, but to give a rapid outline of such preliminary matters as are requisite, in order that it may be understood." Hence it is obvious that it is only certain points that are fit to be handled in this way -a consideration which has an important bearing on the question, What are the best topics for lectures ? But even when care has been taken not to credit the audience with too large a stock of previous knowledge, we must take heed that the treatment of the subject and the terms employed be not such as to mystify rather than enlighten. Imperfectly educated men never willingly deal with abstractions. They never use them in their own talk, and seldom attach a distinct notion to them. Yet in science, as commonly taught, abstract notions abound. It follows that we must often alter to a great extent the method of putting the subject, in order to be intelligible to such men. And if we are not intelligible to them, we cannot wonder that we do not interest them. Now, as science has essentially to do with general conclusions, they cannot be eliminated from it. But they may be introduced, gradually, and as exemplified in particular instances, which give the mind some thing to fasten on, as a type of the general expression. In other words, the generalised result of an induction should not be alluded to, without some hint of the individual facts on which it is based. But if the mere generality of a principle creates a difficulty to an undisciplined mind, what shall we say when it is clothed in strange and uncouth terms, to the meaning of which the hearer, for want of a classical education, has no key? Gravity,' 'momentum,' 'impact,' affinity,' and scores more of words that might be enumerated, embarrass many who would take in the notions well enough, if conveyed by examples and under a less ambitious name. Speaking of the experience of the Ancoats Lyceum, one of the authors before us says: For several years lectures were delivered, and it was found that wherever first-rate talent was engaged, not one-third of the members attended; but when gratuitous lectures were given by local men, and delivered in a language that could be understood, the attendance was uniformly satisfactory.' But why did not first-rate talent speak in a language that could be understood? In a word, it is necessary to look at the topic to be treated from the point of view and in the way in which it is looked upon by those to whom we speak. A wise teacher will not content himself with enforcing his own view, but will first show that he is acquainted with that of his hearers, and so gradually persuade them to accompany him to a more advanced standing-point. Experience tends to show that the native. good sense even of men imperfectly educated can follow a plainly expressed argument with pleasure, provided their power of sustained attention be not overtasked. Reasoning, therefore, is not out of place, but it should be such as not to demand a continuous strain on the mind. There should be breaks and pauses, clearly marked as such, here and there; and, if possible, some change of subject from time to time. Men used to bodily labour, and unused to mental exertion, are doubly unfitted for prolonged attention. It demands that they shall keep their limbs still, and subdue he restlessness which accompanies animal spirits and great muscular vigour; and that they shall rouse their thoughts and overcome the lassitude which arises from an unwonted effort of the brain. Hence pauses which allow the audience to change their positions are not without their use. In respect to delivery, a lecturer is too apt to adopt that undemonstrative manner which marks most men of cultivated intellect; nor, indeed, would we have him raut or rave. But as men of simpler minds require every assis tance from emphasis to detect the point of the sentence or argument-for emphasis is to them like light and shade in a picture-he that would engage them for long together, must not despise the aid of a lively, variable intonation. Mauvaise honte is a sad hindrance, and must by all means be laid aside; for if it be worth while to speak to the working classes, it must be worth while to speak effectively. The bounds of good taste will seldom be overstepped by an educated man; his danger is in the other direction. And be it observed that our lecturer has an advantage over the preacher, or at least over the parish clergyman, in the point of which we are speaking: for the latter has to address a mixed assem blage, and runs the risk of startling the educated class in his congregation by that liberal use of animation and emphasis which would arouse and interest his poorer brethren; but the former, who has to do with the working classes alone, may safely solicit their attention by every available method. We are far from contending that all lectures should be extempore. Few can expect to interest and amuse by a spoken address more than Mr. Dickens does in one of his readings of his own works. And a good read |