and 500,000 gallons per day, respectively, giving a combined yield sufficient for a city of 11,000 inhabitants.

A large number of these wells are in use in the United States for furnishing water for irrigation, stockraising, brewing, paper-making, and domestic or municipal requirements. At Belleville, N. J., 30 such tubes have produced for over six months consecutively 2,750,000 gallons of water.

The general arrangement of a completed well and pump is shown in fig. 6.

A rapid and economical method of sinking deep holes is that practised by the Diamond Rock-Drill Company under the patent of M. Leschot. It consists of the use of a hollow tube or pipe (usually 2 inches in

some rough diamonds, technically known as bort (fig. 8). The rotation of the rod cuts out a cylindrical core, which may be broken up and removed by a water-jet, or taken out in sections by the core-lifter shown in fig. 9. The dust and powder produced by the bit are removed by a stream of water passing down the interior of the pipe and escaping around the cutting edge of the bit, thus serving to keep it cool. The pressure and feed are maintained by hydraulic cylinders acting upon a clamp on the drill-rod or by a worm. These machines enable holes to be bored at any angle in a horizontal or vertical plane, and of sizes varying from 1 to 24 inches, this latter size having been used to extract a core from each of the 260 columns at the Illinois State Capitol building for the purpose of making them lighter. The diameter of the core was 224 inches. The reciprocating machines, actuated by gravity, must drill only vertically.

The following tables contain valuable statistics relating to artesian wells:

Wells in and near London (from Mylne's Section of London

Strata).

Feet.

Feet.

Foulness Island..........450
Mersea and adj. isl'ds..300
Wallasea Island...........400
Little Wigborough......250
Woodham
North Ockendon......... 80
Fobbing.....................100
Bulpham Fen..........70-80

....350

In Artois, France.

Remarks.

Near London, first in England.

In duke of Northumberland's grounds; water rose to 4 feet above the surface.

In the gardens; water rose to surface.

St. Louis, Mo.: Belcher's sugar-refinery, commenced spring of 1849; at intervals to March, 1855; finished in 33 months' steady work; 75 gallons per minute; 2197 feet deep; cost $10,000; mineral, salty, strong odor of

66

St.

Sufficient to turn a wheel.

150 feet masonry; 1804 feet tubing, and a perforated point; yields over 5,000,000 gals. per day, and cost about $200,000. Built Sept. 15, 1855, to Sept. 24, 1861.

Completed Feb. 26, 1841, at a cost of about $72,500.

sulphur, and medicinal virtues; water can be carried 75 feet above surface.

Louis Insane Asylum (180 feet above the former): 3 years 5 months from March 31, 1866; 3843.5 feet; last forty feet in granite, diameter 4 inches from depth

face.

of 1022 feet; water saline, but does not rise to surChicago: 700 to 1200 feet deep; discharge about 1,250,000 gallons, with a head of 125 feet above Lake Michigan. Louisville, Ky.: 2086 feet; April, 1857, to July, 1858; plentiful supply; water mineral.

Columbus, O.: 2775 feet; no water with head enough to reach surface; warm, 91°, and saline. New York wells: less than 500 feet; give water to within 20 feet of surface. At Ehret's brewery four holes were bored in different directions, but converging at one point, giving a supply of 2000 gallons per hour. Terre Haute, Ind.: several wells, 1600 to 1900 feet (one yields strong sulphur-water; two others petroleum). Lake Charles, in Calcasieu parish, La. : mineral, from great sulphur-bed at depth of 440 feet; yield, 65 gallons per minute; rises to 12 feet above surface. Charleston, S. C.: 1250 feet; begun in 1848; saline, soft water; 10 feet above surface; 20 gallons per minute. New Orleans, La.: 630 feet; through quicksands; no satisfactory result. Llano Estacado, Texas: under Pope, 1855; 800-900 feet;

water rose within an available distance of surface. Titusville, Pa., Watson's well: 3553 feet; dry hole. Philadelphia, Continental Hotel: 8 inches diameter, 206 feet deep; 72,000 gallons per day. Andover, Dak. T.: 1070 feet deep; 500 gallons per minute 100 feet above the ground; water very soft, pure and clear as crystal. Pine Forest Shaft Colliery, Pa.: a horizontal hole was driven for 111 feet 4 inches through slate and conglomerate by the Diamond Drill Co., producing a supply of water to run a boiler for fans; in 1871. Rondout, N. Y.: same company bored a 3-inch horizontal hole 450 feet long, giving an abundant supply. Goderich, Ont.: a prospecting-hole was bored through numerous beds of drift, dolomite, marls, and rock-salt to a depth of 1517 feet by the Diamond Drill Co. Empire Mine, Lackawanna Coal Co.: hole 375 feet deep, 9

inches diameter.

For the theory of artesian wells, and temperature of the waters produced by them, see the ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA. For authorities, aside from those there mentioned, see Proceedings Institution of Civil Engineers, London; U. S. Patent-Office Reports; H. S. Drinker's Tunnelling Explosive Compounds and Rock-Drills; Reports of Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, vol. iii., on oil-regions; Ure's Dictionary of Science and Arts, etc. (L. M. H.)

ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN, twenty-first President of the United States, was born at Fairfield, Vt., Oct. 5, 1830. His father, Rev. William Arthur, D. D., a native of the north of Ireland, having graduated at Belfast College, came to this country at the age of eighteen. He became a Baptist minister, and served as pastor of several congregations, chiefly in New York and Vermont. He also published a work on Family Names, and edited for some years a journal called The Antiquarian. He died at Newtonville, N. Y., Oct. 27, 1875. Chester was born in a log cabin which his father occupied while waiting for the erection of a parsonage. He was educated at Schenectady, N. Y., in an academy taught by James I. Lourie, and entered Union College in 1845. During part of his course he supported himself by teaching school, and after graduating in 1848 he still continued to teach while studying law at Lansingburg, N. Y., where his father then resided. Having saved $500 by strict economy, he went to New York City, and entered the law-office of Mr. E. D. Culver, a friend of his father. He was admitted to the bar in 1853, and became junior member of the firm of Culver, Parker & Arthur. This firm was then employed in the celebrated Lemmon case, in which it was decided by Judge Elijah Paine that a slave brought voluntarily by his master into New York became free. At the instance of the Virginia legislature an appeal was taken to the higher courts, and able lawyers employed to defend the right of slaveholders to their slave-property while passing through a free State. Mr. Arthur took a prominent part in the successful effort to induce the legislature of New York to engage eminent counsel to maintain the constitutionality of the laws of the State. The original decision was sustained, and henceforth it was established that no person could be held in bondage

in New York except by the proviso in the National Constitution with reference to fugitives. Mr. Arthur's firm became the legal champions of colored people, and in 1856 were successful in enforcing their right to ride in the street-cars.

At this time the Republican party was formed in consequence of the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska bill throwing open the Territories to slavery. Mr. Arthur, who heretofore had been a Whig, was active in the local organization of the new party, participated in its In 1860, struggles, and contributed to its success. Gov. E. D. Morgan, being re-elected, appointed Mr. Arthur engineer-in-chief on his staff. The duties of this position had long been almost nominal, but the breaking out of the war rendered it important, and Mr. Arthur's experience in connection with the militia proved of great service. In April, 1861, Gov. Morgan requested him to open a branch quartermaster's department in New York City, and soon after gave him the entire charge of preparing and equipping the soldiers of the State. This task remained throughout the war in Gen. Arthur's hands, and was performed to the satisfaction of every one interested. As engineer-inchief he made an elaborate report to the legislature in January, 1862, on the defence of New York harbor and of the inland border. Being appointed inspector-general in February, 1862, he visited the New York regiments in the Army of the Potomac, and saw that their wants were supplied. In June, 1862, he returned, and was secretary at the meeting of the loyal governors held in the Astor House, New York City. When in consequence of this meeting President Lincoln called for more troops, Gen. Arthur became quartermaster, and was efficient in raising the quota of his State, while by careful management the expenses were kept down. In December, 1863, Hon. Horatio Seymour became governor of New York, and Gen. Arthur returned to the practice of law in New York City. But he continued to be active in political affairs, was chairman of the Republican State executive committee of New York, and did much to promote the nomination He was apand election of President Grant in 1868. pointed Nov. 20, 1871, to be collector of the port of New York, and when his first term expired in 1875, was renominated and unanimously confirmed by the Senate. During his tenure of this office the removals of employés were much fewer in number than had been customary, and improvements were introduced in the management.

In July, 1878, he was removed from his position by Secretary Sherman, and Mr. E. A. Merritt was appointed in his place. In 1879 he was elected chairman of the Republican State committee, and did much to secure the election of the candidates for State offices.

When, in June, 1880, at the Republican national convention held in Chicago, Gen. Garfield was nominated for President, it was considered necessary for the success of the party that the second nominee should be taken from New York, and the delegation from that State recommended Gen. Arthur, who was forthwith nominated. In November he was elected Vice-President, and in March, 1881, he took his place as presiding officer of the Senate. A contest soon began between two factions of the Republican party concerning the President's appointments to office, which culminated in the resignation of both the Senators from New York. Mr. Arthur strove to procure the re-election of Hon. Roscoe Conkling by the State legislature, but was not successful. While these seats were vacant the majority of the Senate was Democratic, and Mr. Arthur retained the chair till adjournment, preventing the customary election of a president pro tempore.

On July 2, 1881, Charles J. Guiteau, a vain, unprincipled man, enraged at the refusal of an office and influenced by the political excitement, shot President Garfield. During the eighty days that elapsed before the President's death Mr. Arthur remained in privacy,

giving no countenance to the proposal made by some public men that he should assume the powers of the President during his disability from his wound. As soon as the death of the President was announced he took the oath of office privately in New York, Sept. 20, and proceeded to Washington, where his public inauguration took place Sept. 22. In his address he promised to carry out the policy of his predecessor. When the members of Mr. Garfield's Cabinet offered their resignations, they were requested to retain their places till the meeting of Congress in December. President Arthur called a special session of the Senate, which met Oct. 10, and confirmed several nominations, most of which had been made by President Garfield, though sent in by his successor.

ARTHUR, WILLIAM, an Irish Wesleyan clergyman and author, was born in the county Antrim in 1819. The family to which he belongs is the same as that of Pres. Arthur of the United States, and the name was originally McArthur. It is retained in its older form by Alderman McArthur, lord mayor of London in 1881. William Arthur, after receiving a classical education, studied theology at Hoxton College, near London, and in 1839 went to India as a missionary. Three years later he was obliged to return on account of threatened loss of sight. He resided in France from 1846 to 1848, and was afterward chosen secretary of the Methodist Missionary Society and president of the British Conference. In 1867 he became president of the Methodist College at Belfast, but resigned that position in 1871. He has published a number of works, among which are-A Mission to the Mysore (1847); The Successful Merchant, a Life of Samuel Budgett (1852); The Tongue of Fire, or True Power of Christianity (1856); Italy in Transition (1860).

ARTICLES OF WAR. These may be defined to be the penal code by which two classes of persons are governed-namely, those actually in the military service of their country, either by commission as officers or by voluntary enlistment, conscription, or impressment as soldiers; and those voluntarily serving with an army in the field in other capacities, such as camp-followers, officers' private servants, sutlers, newspaper reporters, and the like.

By this code many acts are made military offences which could not be committed by civilians, such as sleeping on post, making a false muster, striking a superior officer, and desertion.

Many common-law crimes, if committed by persons subject to military jurisdiction, are also, by this code, cognizable before the tribunal designated by it for the ascertainment of the guilt of the offender. Such a code is not to be confounded with the "laws of war," which constitute that portion of the laws of nations applicable to belligerent operations on land, and embrace in their jurisdiction all non-combatants, as well as military persons, within the lines of the contending forces.

Articles of war are also distinct from army regulations, which are prescribed by the executive, and, although having the force of law while in existence, are merely administrative. If such regulations are violated, recourse must be had to the articles of war to ascertain whether an offence has been committed, and, if so, the method of procedure to bring the of fender to trial and the measure of punishment.

All governments from the earliest times have found it necessary to provide some sort of code, however imperfect, for the government of their military forces. In some instances, as in the case of the Romans, civil crimes, when committed by persons in military service, were tried by the civil tribunals, and military crimes by military authority. In England, from the Conquest down to 1640, the "court of chivalry" or "marshal's court" was the only recognized legal tribunal for the trial of military offences in time of war. This court was presided over by the high constable, and the earl marshal was a member. After a time it assumed such extensive jurisdiction that in the 13th Rich. II. it became necessary to define its

limits by statute, as follows: "To the constable it pertaineth to have cognizance of contracts touching deeds of arms and of war out of the realm, and also of things that touch war within the realm, which cannot be determined nor discussed by the common law, with other usages and customs to the same matter pertaining, which other constables heretofore have duly and reasonably used in their time.' Subsequently, when there was no one in office as high constable, the earl marshal undertook to hold the court alone, but his jurisdiction having been questioned during the reign of James I., the privy council held that he could properly hold the court. In the reign of Charles I., however, the court of King's Bench ruled against the validity of the "court marshall' as thus constituted. There appears to have been no prescribed form of trial before this tribunal, and no limitations as to punishment. The sovereign of England, by virtue of his prerogative, could prescribe articles of war for the government of armies raised in time of war, whether such war was a foreign or domestic one. In time of peace, however, there was no legal distinction between the soldier and the citizen, and the common law gave the sovereign no power to control his troops by means of articles of war. Under the Plantagenets and Tudors there had been no regular standing army, That which was raised under the last kings of the house of Stuart was not recognized by Parliament. Consequently, when James II. desired to punish deserters under an obsolete statute of Henry VI., to which a forced construction had been given by corrupt and servile judges, the alleged offenders had to be tried at the assizes by a petit jury on an indictment found by a grand jury. When the Revolution of 1688 took place the Convention Parliament found an army on its hands to be disposed of. The prospect of immediate war with France made it inexpedient to disband these troops, which James II., in one of his latest acts before abdication, had undertaken to disband. The mutiny at Ipswich of the First regiment of foot, or Royal Scots, made it necessary to provide a mode of government other than by the common law for military persons in time of peace, and a "Mutiny Bill," which otherwise would not have passed without the greatest difficulty, was, on the 28th of March, 1689, enacted by Parliament without a division. It was limited in its duration to six months, and declared preliminarily, in explicit terms, that standing armies and courts-martial were unknown to the law of England. It was then enacted that, on account of the extreme perils then impending over the state, no man mustered on pay should, on pain of death or of such lighter punishment as a court-martial should deem sufficient, desert his colors or mutiny against his commanding officers. When the six months had expired the power necessary to the maintenance of military discipline was a second time entrusted to the Crown for a short term, and, the necessity continuing, not a session passed without a mutiny bill, with its declaratory preamble as to the law as laid down in the Declaration of Right. This practice has continued to the present time, except that as experience has shown a necessity therefor articles have, from time to time, been added or amended.

Gradually and almost imperceptibly the regular standing army has become one of the institutions of Great Britain, and has acted in such perfect harmony with all her other institutions that, in the language of Lord Macaulay, it has never once during a hundred and sixty years been untrue to the throne or disobedient to the law-has never once defied the tribunals or overawed the constituent bodies.

By the first mutiny bills desertion, mutiny, and sedition were the only acts made military crimes punishable by courts-martial, and if a soldier struck his officer the offence was only an assault and battery at common law. In 1717, Parliament first authorized the sovereign to put forth articles which should be in force within the realm in time of peace. The mutiny bill, by its reference to courts-martial, had recognized the description