rescued from a ruinous method of culture, and the vine from processes of deterioration, and its sale from the grasp of a monopoly, until the production rose to the highest demand in the foreign. markets. His efforts, although crowned with success, involved the government in an insurrectionary movement in the district, and well-nigh caused a rupture with England, whose merchants had a monopoly of all the wines of this grape-a portion of the vintage being now brought into open market.

From the improvement of the soil and the agriculture, to the cultivation of the minds of the people, the transition was natural in this clear-sighted minister. His own son he sent to Rome, and afterwards to Vienna and Venice, to enjoy advantages he could not get at home; and at the same time, Pombal set agencies at work to relieve others from the necessities of sending their sons abroad for similar advantages. He determined that no Portuguese youth should have the excuse of want of opportunity, for not knowing how to write a decent letter in his vernacular, or be compelled to go to Venice and Genoa to obtain a commercial education. A School of Commerce was opened in Lisbon for those who wished to become clerks and enter the public offices; and a College (Royal Collegio dos Nobres) for the liberal education of the sons of the nobility. The laws and ordinances of this seminary were entirely framed by Pombal-so universal was his genius and so capable was he of perceiving and remedying every kind of evil that afflicted and depressed his country. As the old custom of conversing in Latin was still observed, to the utter destruction of good Latinity, he directed that the students should for the future converse either in Portuguese, French, Italian, or English, and never in Latin, as, he remarks, the familiar use of this dead language tends more para os ensinar a barbarisar than to facilitate the knowledge of it. With respect to modern languages, it was directed that all lessons, so far as that was practicable, should be given viva voce, without overwhelming the pupils with a multitude of useless rules; since living languages are more readily acquired by conversation and reading, than by elaborate grammars and abstruse philological works. "How far we are from following such valuable precepts," say the Conde da Carnota, "parents must have often felt, for it too frequently happens that, after their children have been ostensibly learning French for several years at an English school, they have come home as unable to converse in it as if they had never opened a French gramAnd from what does this arise, but from the inefficient system of teaching pursued at most places of instruction?"

mar.

The discipline of the University at Coimbra was also entirely remodeled. Two months only were allowed for vacation, instead of the long periods hitherto wasted under that name. Regular attendance at lectures and lessons was strictly insisted upon, unless illness or any other sufficient cause was pleaded. Fines were inflicted for the first and second absence, and confinement for the third. By these ordinances all idlers were compelled to take their names off the books, and in a short time the number of students fell from several thousands to 600 or 700.

In like manner, with a view to real progress, Pombal regulated the management of the Botanic Garden, ordering the curators to reduce the number of plants to those necessary for botanic studies, in order that the students might not be ignorant of this branch of medicine, as it is practiced with little expense in other Universities, and to remember that the garden was raised "for the study of boys, not the ostentation of princes."

In the same year the Royal Press was instituted, the superintendence of which was given to Nicolas Pagliarini, a Roman printer, who had been expatriated for printing anti-Jesuitical works. Previous to this period, such was the deplorable state of letters, that almost all Portuguese works were printed in foreign countries.

But Pombal's attention was not exclusively turned to the education of the higher classes. In the same year, November 6, 1772, he established in the Portuguese dominions no less than 887 professors and masters for the gratuitous instruction of all his Majesty's subjects, and, of these, 94 were appointed to the islands and colonies. Small taxes, under the name of "the literary subsidy," were laid on various articles of general consumption, in order to pay the salaries of these professors; and still further to prove his love for literature, and to show the exalted opinion he entertained of its influence upon mankind, and with the hope of elevating its professors both in their own estimation and in that of the people, Pombal determined that they should enjoy the various privileges attached to nobreza, or nobility, in Portugal, and so it was accordingly decreed. His biographer says, speaking of the pains he took to educate the people :

He hoped by these means to lay the foundation on which, at a future period, the superstructure of a free government might be erected. He was well aware that, if popular governments are to be any thing but shadows, they must be based on popular knowledge. He felt that his country without the aid of education would be unfit for any of those forms of free government which, when the people are ignorant, too frequently confer absolute power on factions, who enjoy the good for which others have toiled. He perceived that the spirit of revolution was already abroad in his time, that its progress was slow but irre

, and he thereupon wished his countrymen to be prepared for its advent. With a presentiment of the evils that menaced his successors, he frequently exclaimed, "Os meus filhos ainda poderao viver descançados, mas ai dos meus netos." (Our children may live to end their days in peace, but God help our grandchildren.)

We can not in this place go into his financial, military and naval reforms. Suffice it to say, that he deprecated the policy of the government in retaining the working of all mines of gold and silver, which he designated "the fatal treasuries of princes," and which had compelled the king, reported to be one of the richest monarchs in Europe, at the beginning of his reign to borrow 400,000 cruzados ($200,000), to meet the exigencies of his court. In less than five years, by encouraging different national industries, he did away with the annual deficit, and secured an annual surplus in the royal treasury. He found both the army and the navy, nominally strong, but actually weak and deteriorating-so weak that the Algerine corsairs were in the habit not only of making descents on the coast, and plundering the inhabitants, without danger of chastisement, but would from time to time shut in the merchant vessels in their principal ports, until a convoy could be dispatched to protect them. He enlarged the navy by sending to England for 300 shipwrights and their workmen to work in the dockyards and arsenals of Lisbon, and built new and strengthened the old fortifications at all the principal ports.

Each of the reformatory measures of Pombal, aroused implacable enemies among them who were profiting by ancient abuses, or who were too ignorant to appreciate alteranate beneficial results beyond temporary inconveniences. These all culminated on the death of the King, and his few remaining years were darkened by seeing many of his reforms obstructed and overthrown, his official and personal enemies raised to positions of honor and trust, and accusations of all kinds against his personal fidelity, and a commission was appointed to investigate all his pecuniary transactions.

Overcome at length by age and infirmity Pombal breathed his last in the midst of his family and relations on the 5th of May, 1682, and in the 83d year of his age. "Love and obedience," if not "troops of friends," accompanied his dying moments; his wife, his two daughters, and his son, the Count d' Oeyras, soothing that deathbed on which he exhibited the resignation of a philosopher and the steady faith of a Christian. His funeral was celebrated with the respect due to his rank, but the Bishop of Coimbra, for having assisted at it, was sharply reprimanded by the Governor of the province, and the priest who pronounced his funeral oration, having dared to deplore the ingratitude of Portugal towards the greatest of its Ministers, was confined in a convent in the Cape Verde Islands. When we add that the eulogistic epitaph which filial piety inscribed on his tomb was ordered by Government to be removed or erased, we have given the finishing touch to the picture of royal ingratitude towards one who had ceaselessly labored for the benefit of his country during a reign whose prosperity was mainly due to his single exertions.

MARTIN LUTHER-EDUCATION AND EDUCATIONAL VIEWS.

Abridged from Life of Luther, by BARNAS SEARS, D. D.

MARTIN LUTHER was born in the Electorate of Saxony, at Eisleben, in the county of Mansfeld, November 10, 1483; but his father, when Martin was six months old, removed to Mansfeld, which became henceforward the home of his childhood. He always spoke of himself and of his ancestors as belonging to the peasantry. 'I am a peasant's son. My father, my grandfather, and my forefathers were all true peasants. Afterwards my father went to Mansfeld, and became an ore-digger.' Luther's father, after he became a miner, rose by industry and effort from the condition of a peasant to that of a burgher or free citizen. He commenced his career at Mansfeld in penury, but with a force of character that could not leave him in that state. My parents,' says Luther, were, in the beginning, right poor. My father was a poor mine-digger, and my mother did carry her wood on her shoulders; and after this sort did they support us, their children. They had a sharp, bitter experience of it; no one would do likewise now.'

It was not till about seventeen years afterwards, when Luther was a member of the university, that his father had the means of paying the expenses of his education. His honesty, good sense, energy and decision of character won for him the respect of his fellow-citizens. He was open-hearted and frank, and was wont to follow the convictions of his understanding, fearless of consequences. His firmness was characterized by severity, sometimes approaching to obstinacy.

The maiden name of Luther's mother was Margaret Lindemann. She was born at Neustadt, a small town directly south of Eisenach, and west of Gotha. Her father, who had been a burgher there, had removed from that place to Eisenach. It was, no doubt, here that Luther's father formed an acquaintance with her. The circumstance that three of her brothers were liberally educated would seem to indicate that she belonged to an intelligent family. Melancthon says, 'She had many virtues agreeing to her sex; and was

cially notable for her chaste conversation, godly fear, and diligent prayer, insomuch that other honorable women looked upon her as a model of virtue and honesty.'

Luther's parents bestowed great care upon his early training. In the strictest sense, he was brought up in the fear of God, and · with reverence for the then existing institutions of religion. The intentions of his parents were of the most laudable character; the faults of their discipline were those of the age in which they lived. They were highly conscientious, earnest and zealous in the discharge of their parental duties. But the age was one of rudeness and severity, and they themselves had more talent than culture, more force and sternness of character than skill in awakening and fostering the generous impulses of childhood. Their discipline was, almost exclusively, one of law and authority. The consequence was, that Martin, instead of feeling at ease and gamboling joyfully in their presence, became timid and shy, and was kept in a state of alarm, which closed up the avenues of his warm and naturally confiding heart. Once,' says he, 'did my father beat me so sharply, that I fled away from him, and was angry against him, till, by diligent endeavor, he gained me back.' 'Once did my mother, for a small nut, beat me till the blood came forth.' 'Their intent and purpose were of the best sort; but they knew not how to put a difference between dispositions, and to order their discipline accordingly; for that it should be exercised in a way that the apple might be put with the rod.'

To this rigid domestic discipline is to be traced, in a measure, his being long subject to sudden alarms, or being harsh and violent when he rose above them. Though in later life he was fully aware that many errors had been committed in his domestic training; and though, as he himself says, he tried in vain to remove all the effects of it upon his feelings and habits, still he found in it much more to approve than to condemn. Alluding to his own case, and that of others of his age, he says: 'Children should not be entreated too tenderly of their parents, but should be forced to order and to submission, as were their parents before them.'

The fact that, from three or four brothers, Martin alone was designated for a liberal education, is sufficient proof that he gave some early indications of talent. It is also evident that the father took a religious view of this subject and desired for his son something higher and better than mere worldly distinction. An early writer states, that he had heard from the relations of Luther at Mansfeld, that the father was often known to pray earnestly at the bedside of