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the benefit of these Polish refugees, and his hope was to obtain his allotment. But finding an American in possession, being averse to lawsuits, and at best a stranger to the country, he abandoned the quest and went to Galena, where William S. Hamilton gave him work as a lead smelter.

In November, 1836, he was sent by Hamilton to do the smelting in a new establishment which he erected on the Wisconsin River at the present Muscoda (then sometimes called Savannah or English Prairie), which place and its neighborhood became Dziewanowski's permanent home. He appears to have worked for Hamilton until at least 1839, meantime (September 4, 1838) taking up the first of a number of tracts of land which he acquired from the government in township 8, range 1 east, Iowa County. This town, when organized in 1849, was named Pulaski, either at his suggestion or in his honor, for he became a prominent citizen of both town and county. Dziewanowski lived on that farm in that town the balance of his days. He died February 22, 1883.

Dziewanowski was married, February 7, 1843, at Walnut Grove, the home of General Charles Bracken near Mineral Point, to Mary Jane McKown, of Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. Miss McKown, born on a plantation near Martinsburg, Virginia, was a niece of General Charles Bracken, of whose family she was a member at the time of her marriage. Mrs. Dziewanowski died at Milwaukee, May 15, 1890.

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Mrs. Allen, in conversation, told the editor about the distinction of Major Dziewanowski's bearing, his courtly manners, and charming courtesy. His daughter, in the notes before me, speaks of his early religious training in the Greek church as influencing his entire life. He and his wife became leaders of Methodism in their neighborhood. He was a lover of music, a good singer. and knew several languages. "He never took a foreign newspaper, but read exclusively in English. He read the English Bible through five times and reached Second Kings in the sixth reading." He became an American in spirit as well as by adoption, and despite his aristocratic upbringing, was an uncompromising partisan of the democratic rule of life.

Dziewanowski received but a single letter from home after his exile. That one was written by the friendly count mentioned in Mrs. Allen's article, and was dated August 1, 1833. It is before me as I write. All his life was overshadowed by the doubt as to the fate of his mother and other members of the family, none of whom could safely communicate with him, a convicted revolutionist. The count's letter was mailed from Brünn, Austria.

In the story of Dziewanowski we have something more than merely a dramatic narrative. It illustrates the richness of the historical and literary treasure which lies just beneath the surface of the pioneer history of our state.-EDITOR.

THE YANKEE AND THE TEUTON IN

WISCONSIN

JOSEPH SCHAFER

III SOME SOCIAL TRAITS OF YANKEES

Harriet Martineau, the English traveler who in 1837 published a book entitled Society in America, was deeply impressed with New England's concern for education. "All young people in these villages," she says, "are more or less instructed. Schooling is considered a necessary of life. I happened to be looking over an old almanac one day, when I found, among the directions relating to the preparations for winter on a farm, the following: 'Secure your cellars from frost. Fasten loose clapboards and shingles. Secure a good schoolmaster.""

We do not know what almanac Miss Martineau consulted. But a glance at a file of the Farmer's Almanack, begun in 1793 by Robert B. Thomas and circulated by him for more than half a century all over New England, shows her quotation to be fully justified in spirit if not in letter. As early at least as the year 1804, Mr. Thomas included in his directions for the month of November, the indispensable item of education in connection with other activities: "Now let the noise of your flail awake your drowsy neighbors. Bank up your cellars. Now hire a good schoolmaster and send your children to school as much as possible."

The nation was young in 1804. Parts of it were new and for that reason had made but meager educational progress; other parts were backward for different reasons. But in the older states of New England popular education had flourished for one hundred and fifty years. This point,

1 Editor's italics.

stressed by a score of writers, illustrated by legal enactments, court decrees, town records, and anniversary sermons, cannot be over-emphasized in a summary of the social contributions which the Yankees made to the new western societies they helped to build. Notwithstanding all that has been written to prove the priority, in this or that feature of American educational progress, of other social strains or geographical areas, history may confidently assign to the Yankee priority in the attainment of universal literacy on an extensive scale.

Once the Puritan had convinced himself that the temptation to ignorance came from "ye old deluder Satan," whose fell purpose was to keep men from a knowledge of the Scriptures and thus the more readily win them for his own, he hesitated not to require the maintenance of schools in all towns and neighborhoods under his jurisdiction. He was also concerned to recruit an "able and orthodox ministry" to take the places of the aging pastors who had come from England and to supply the needs of new settlements. Harvard College could turn out the ministers, if it had properly prepared young men to work upon. So the larger towns were required to maintain grammar schools in addition to the common schools. Thus we have, as early as 1647, provision for schooling from the lowest rudiments up through the college course.

The original religious motive for maintaining these schools persisted. But other motives were added as the Puritans perceived how notably secular interests, as well as religious, were served by schooling. For one thing, young persons who could read, write, and cipher had a distinct advantage in worldly matters over those who could not. Cheats and "humbugs," of whom every community had its share, made victims of the ignorant, while they fled from the instructed even as their master, Satan, was supposed to flee from them. Many New England stories were

designed to carry the lesson, especially to parents, that the best legacy children could receive was good schooling, without which wealth and property would quickly melt away.2

Apart, also, from such negative worldly advantages as we have named, one who had enjoyed good schooling might thereby hope to share in many special social privileges from which the unlettered were debarred. New England life on the religious side centered in the church, on the civic side in the town. Each of the two institutions required a full set of elective officers, ranked according to the importance of the offices filled, and all of these were chosen from the instructed portion of the community. To be a deacon in the church or a selectman on the town board might not be financially remunerative, but it imparted a dignity to the individual and a social status to the family which caused these offices to be highly prized. The older theory was that only good churchmen could fill either type of office. Gradually, the town offices, which paid something in cash and yielded considerable political power, came to be sought with increasing frequency by men who might have no interest in the church. "Jethro Bass" was typical, not unique, in his scheming to be chosen selectman, and the training offered by the district school was looked upon as a minimum basis for such preferment. Said the Farmer's Almanack for November, 1810: "Send your children to school. Every boy should have a chance to prepare himself to do common town business."

The great majority were satisfied with the elementary training afforded by the district schools, kept for a few months in winter. But the presence of learned men in every community and the existence of secondary schools and colleges tolled a good many on the way to advanced instruction who had no plans for professional careers. From

2 An example is in Abram E. Brown, Legends of Old Bedford (Boston, 1892).

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