lish grammar. We have not indeed in English that structural nicety which the predominance of inflected forms gives a language. Hence there is little scope for applying laws of syntax to our mothertongue. But we have compensation in some other departments. The fact that the English language is composite opens out a very interesting and a very educating line of study in connexion with it-the study of words in their origin and in their variety and changes of meaning. Everybody knows how much literature owes to Dean Trench in connexion with this subject; he has indeed, as it seems to me, indicated a course which, rightly used, may be made fruitful of most precious results in education.

The school-boy then should, while learning his Latin grammar, which will help him to appreciate one element of his native speech, be allowed some insight into the more domestic and aboriginal element of that speech, as exhibited in its older and purely Saxon forms. He should be taught how the language has grown, and changed, and developed; how inflections have gradually dropped out; how new words and new idioms have as gradually slipt in ; how old words have gotten for themselves new meanings; and how prevailing opinions, and shifting fashions, and national temperament affect the "jus et norma loquendi.”

Again, when he comes to study an English author, he should be required to note every striking and important word and phrase; to discriminate the exact shade of meaning proper to the word in that particular connexion; to register such idioms as have become obsolete, or involve note-worthy grammatical peculiarities, and to make a collection of such forms and expressions as deserve to be treasured up for use in composition.

2. From the language we pass to the subject-matter, and here again there is scope for great and varied labour.

In the first place the general drift and tenor of the argument should be mastered. With this view the pupil should, after reading a certain portion of his

author, be required to make an analysis or abstract of the portion read. He must be trained, in doing this, to seize and pick out the leading thoughts, to indicate the steps in the argument, and to bring into full relief the master-truth which the author wishes to exhibit.

Further, he must be made to "get up" a clear and full explanation of all classical, historical, and other allusions, and he must patiently and faithfully disentangle all involutions of language, and all intricacies of thought.

Yet again, in order to call into play his reasoning and reflective powers, he must be required (where the opportunity presents itself) to weigh in his own mind the force and soundness of some particular argument, the truth and falsehood of some particular position, and to form and express his opinion about them.

So too, according to the character of the work studied, certain points will require special attention. If the pupil is engaged on a historian, he must be led to consider the evidence on which the historical facts are based, and the validity of the inferences drawn from them. The study of a poem or drama will afford opportunity for another sort of culture. Character must be analysed, the propriety and beauty of the imagery illustrated, poetical forms of expression and figures of speech brought under notice.

3. In the last place, such a study as I am advocating must be accompanied by frequent and varied exercises in composition. A popular and useful exercise of the kind is what is called paraphrasing, which consists in expressing the thoughts of the writer in different but equivalent terms.

This approaches in some measure to the practice of written translation from a foreign language, and to a certain extent supplies its place as an instrument of education. Another and still more valuable exercise is writing from memory the substance of a portion of an author after having carefully studied it some little time before. In this case, the original and the imitation should

body. We are all interested in the formation of the national character and the culture of the national mind. The tendencies of education are certainly just now in a purely utilitarian and scientific direction. Some partial reaction is wanted. Let the useful be duly honoured; let science occupy its own, and that a worthy place. But open the way also for moral influences, for the assimilation of high thoughts, and communing with great minds. Let England's immortal dead speak again in the Colleges and Schools of their country, and their voices will not fall vainly on the ears of England's children. Their burning words and breathing thoughts will stimulate and nourish our national manhood, and will help to maintain an exalted national character.

In the time of the Tudors, the weekly wages of ordinary labourers would enable them to purchase twice as much wheat and meat as would the wages of a similar class of labourers at the present time. It therefore appears that improvement in the material condition of a large section of the community has not accompanied the great progress in the nation's wealth. For England's commercial progress is unparalleled; she accumulates capital for a great portion of the civilized world; by her aid railways are carried into the far West; her commerce has

been developed by the greatest triumphs of mechanical genius; her exports have advanced in a few years from 50,000,0007. to 130,000,000l. ; and yet no corresponding effect seems to have been produced in the material condition of her poorest classes.

Philanthropic institutions continue to unfold the same tales of dire distress. Needlewomen exhaust their strength and ruin their health for the most beggarly pittances; and labourers frequently cannot be provided with such food as the necessities of nature demand-for by many meat can now never be tasted more than once a week. It appears, therefore, quite evident that increased production does not insure a happier distribution of a nation's wealth. Yet there may be divers opinions as to how a more equable distribution is to be brought about.

I may be thought hard-hearted if I seek a remedy in the lessons which

political economy teaches. The remedy, however, which I shall describe has the advantage of having been tried and proved to be effectual.

The most characteristic feature in the social condition of this country is the fact that all classes of labourers depend for their remuneration upon the capital which has been accumulated by others. As long as our social relations continue thus, the remuneration of the labourer must be regulated by the same laws as at the present time. Wages are now determined by the relative rapidity with which the population and the accumulation of capital advance. The wage-fund of a country is a component part of its capital; if this increases with greater rapidity than population, wages will rise. We may regret that a labourer should only obtain ten shillings a week; but such wages are absolutely decreed to him by our existing social conditions, and cannot be raised by the mere desires of humane sympathy. We are thus able to discern the only effectual means by which wages can be raised, since they are determined by a ratio between population and capital; but there is a wide-spread opinion amongst our labouring classes, which comes out prominently in the agitation of strikes, that wages are reduced by a tyrannical fiat of the capitalist. When the labourers express enmity towards capitalists, they should remember that, as long as the labourers, as a class, do not save, they render capitalists, who do not labour with their hands, absolutely necessary. Capital is that portion of past produce which has been saved to aid future production; capital, in fact, sustains the labourer until the results of his labour become available for consumption. If the labourer will not save, he must look for others to sustain him, and a large portion of the produce of his labour must be devoted to compensate the capitalist for his accumulation, for his risk, and for the labour of superintendence. When, therefore, labourers become a saving class, there will have been secured the most important advance not only in their social, but also in their material condi

tion, as they will then obtain from their own savings all those services for which they now have to pay the capitalist so heavy a price. This may appear an utopian expectation; and it will perhaps be objected, "What is the use of saying it is a good thing for the labourers to save? Every one knows that; the difficulty is, how to induce them to save." I recognise the difficulty, and will meet it with a remedy, which I believe may well impress us with its practical significance. All saving involves a present sacrifice for a future advantage. A sure sign of inferior education is the absence of foresight. The poor, therefore, will not generally be provident ; and, of course, saving becomes much more difficult when it cannot be made from a superfluous abundance, but involves the sacrifice of some of the necessaries of life. We will recognise to the full all these obstacles to saving, for we shall then be better able to discern the manner in which saving can be most effectually encouraged. The first thing which is of special importance is to place distinctly before the labourer the advantage which his saving will bring him. It is not surprising that there should be an absence of saving amongst the poor at the present time. Few labourers would be able to accumulate 1007. without many a severe sacrifice. When this 1007. is accumulated, the labourer will not be in a different social position; the 1007. will be placed in the savings bank, and fifty shillings a year will be the only reward of his prudence. If, however, he could use this 1007. as capital to support him while labouring, he would then cease to pay the capitalist the heavy price he now pays him. price he now pays him. The advantage

to the labourer of being his own capitalist can scarcely be overestimated. He would be advanced to a different social grade; the whole produce of his labour would be his own; and, depend upon it, prudence amongst the labouring classes would not then be so rare a virtue as it is now. But how is this to be effected? The whole tendency of civilisation is against it; every year production is

carried on upon a larger scale; every year small capitalists and small producers find it difficult to compete with large commercial undertakings. Manufacturing on an extensive scale is more economical, and the small manufactories are being entirely absorbed by those marvels of commercial enterprise with which Lancashire and Yorkshire are studded. Large farms are gradually absorbing the small holdings; in a village there are now but three occupiers, where, perhaps, a few years since there were thirty; and this tendency will be found to increase in every department of industry, in proportion as the application of machinery is extended. It is therefore hopeless to expect that production will ever again be carried on by uncombined labourers, such as the peasant cultivators of India, or the artisans and artificers of bygone days. How, therefore, can a labourer in this country convert his savings into capital to support his own labour? This can be virtually done, and has been done, by a number of labourers putting their joint savings into one common fund, thus forming a capital sufficient to establish a large commercial undertaking. Those who have contributed this capital may act as labourers in the concern, thus becoming their own capitalists, and taking to themselves the whole of the profits which are now paid to the capitalist. If the savings of the labouring classes could be thus invested, it is quite evident that accumulation would be most powerfully stimulated. Fifty shillings a year received as interest from 1007. by the working man can make no perceptible change in his social condition; but if this 1007. would enable him to become a working partner in a thriving joint-stock concern, he is at once advanced into a different social grade. He is no longer a hired labourer, who toils on from year to year without prospect of advancement; but his career becomes cheered by the blessings of hope. Under these benign influences he will attain prudential habits, and all those industrial virtues which so pre-eminently distinguish the middle classes.

But, it may be objected, such combinations of labour for commercial purposes can never succeed. The requisite confidence will not be placed in the managers; there will be divided councils; and it will therefore be impossible to compete with the energy of the individual capitalist. Such objections appear theoretically to be unanswerable; they will, however, be completely refuted by the examples of success which I shall adduce.

I will now describe the extraordinary career of two Co-operative Societies at Leeds and Rochdale; and I would remark beforehand that I believe their success has been due to no exceptional causes. Working men originated them; every farthing of the capital has throughout belonged to working men; and, from the commencement, the management has been entirely in the hands of working

men.

In 1844, the working classes of Leeds believed that they were compelled, in consequence of a combination of millers, to pay a high price for adulterated flower. They therefore determined to supply themselves with pure flour at the lowest market price. Three thousand pounds were raised by shares of 21s. each: no person being permitted to hold more than one share. As no suitable mill could be rented, one was purchased for 5,0007.,-part of the purchase-money remaining on mortgage. It was resolved to purchase the very best English wheat, and to sell no flour but that of the first quality; and, after a careful calculation, it was resolved that as many shillings per quarter as were paid for wheat, so many halfpence per stone should be charged for flour. Thus, if wheat was 40s. per quarter, flour would be 1s. 8d. per stone. In Leeds, flour had always been sold one penny or two-pence per stone above the price thus determined. But all the millers have now, by competition, been compelled to reduce the price to that charged at the cooperative mill. The members of the society and the public purchase upon the same terms; but each member receives a tin ticket to record the amount of each of

his purchases, and at the end of the year the profits are thus divided:-Five per cent. is paid as a uniform dividend upon the shares; and the remaining profits are divided amongst the members in proportion to the amount of their respective purchases, this amount being registered by the tin tickets.

In 1850, the capital was 3,9251., business done 26,1007., and profits 5067. The society steadily and rapidly progressed in prosperity. In 1857, taking an average of the preceding five years, the business done was 55,9307., the capital 7,6897., and the profits 1,7867. This indicates profits of 25 per cent. The management of the concern appears to have been admirable. No credit whatever is given. The retailers of the flour are remunerated by commission of 18. 9d. per bag; and they are not allowed to give orders for less than 107. at a time this arrangement diminishes the cost of cartage from the mill. The economy and excellence of the management are proved by the fact, that the cost of retailing is reduced 50 per cent.; and the expense of grinding is 40 per cent. less than had before been charged in Leeds.

At Rochdale, a Co-operative Store is conducted on the same principles, and with equal success. It commenced in 1844, with a capital of 287. At first, only grocery was sold; now, butchers' meat and clothes are also retailed; and within the last few years, a flour-mill, similar to the one at Leeds, has been established. In 1856, the number of members was 1,600, the amount of funds, 12,920.; the business done was 63,1797., and the profits made, 3,921. In this society a member can hold any amount of shares less than 1007. The society also has the functions of a bank of deposit; for members can add or withdraw capital at their pleasure. Profits are divided on the same principles as at Leeds, with the exception that 2 per cent. of the profits are put aside for the mutual improvement of the members: an excellent reading-room and a library are thus supported. All adulteration is most carefully avoided. The officers

are elected by the members for a definite period. period. A box is kept, in which any member can lodge a written complaint, which is investigated at a quarterly meeting; but complaints are seldom made, for the management is as excellent as at Leeds. Thus the working expenses are not 2 per cent. upon the returns. This is much less than half the average working expenses of similar businesses. The Pioneers' Co-operative Store, at Rochdale, and the Leeds' Co-operative Flour-mill, have, together, done transactions to the extent of more than 1,000,0007.; and they have not had to set off 107. for bad debts. Professional auditors have examined the books of these two societies, and affirm that the manner in which the accounts have been kept might serve as a model to any commercial undertaking. As an offshoot of the Pioneers' Store, a Co-operative Cotton-mill was established at Rochdale in 1855. The Pioneers' Society has 5,000l. invested as capital in the undertaking. At first, a portion of a mill was rented; and, in 1856, 96 looms were at work: the profits of the capital were 13 per cent. The labourers receive the wages current in the trade, and a uniform dividend of 5 per cent. is paid on capital. The remaining profits are divided into two equal shares; one of these is paid as an extra dividend upon capital; the other share is at the end of each year divided amongst the labourers. Each labourer's share is in direct proportion to the amount of wages he has received throughout the year. The most efficient workmen, therefore, not only receive, as in other employments, the highest weekly wages, but also obtain a corresponding advantage in the annual division of profits. The most skilled labour and the highest efforts of that skill are secured; and the concern, though in its infancy, is able to compete successfully in a business where commercial enterprise has been most particularly developed.' The great suc

1 These facts have been summarised from statements of accounts which I have obtained from Leeds and Rochdale.

Much valuable information is also contained