roted are skins which have been treated with a solution of nitric acid and quicksilver to protect them from damage by insects and to facilitate the operations of manufacture. The raw materials-that is, the fur skins are imported.

Production.-No separate statistics are given for the production of hatters' fur. The census classification, "bat and cap materials," which includes fur prepared for hatters' use, gives an output valued at about $7,600,000 in 1914. Hatters' für was also reported under "furs, dressed."

Imports.-Imports of furs not on the skin, prepared for hatters' use, including fur skins carroted, in 1914 were $607,254. The bulk of the imports comes from France and Belgium. Later statistics follow:

Exports.-None recorded.

Survey N-10.

ខ៩៦៦៦៦៦

Hatters' plush, under the census classification (see above), refers to black plush 22 inches or more in width, with a soft silk "pile" that will iron down to a glossy surface and hold its color under the heated iron. It was primarily used for men's silk hats, but is now a favored material for women's high-grade hats and for other purposes.

Production.-No figures are available differentiating domestic production of hatters' plush from that of other plush. Considerable quantities were, however, made here even before the duty was raised by the act of 1922 from 10 to 60 per cent, though most of it so made was used in making women's hats. Whether much, or even any, of it was of the high quality required for men's silk hats is doubtful.

Imports of hatters' plush come almost exclusively from France, from 1895 through 1909 averaging only $46,000 in value. The increase, beginning in 1910 and rising to $170,777 in 1914 and to $445,070 in 1917, was largely due to the vogue of this material for women's hats and for other purposes. No phraseology so far adopted has succeeded in preventing imports of hatters' plush nominally designed for men's hats from being used for other purposes. In the act of 1922, specific mention was discontinued and hatter's plush thereby became dutiable at the rate provided for other silk plushes under paragraph 1206. Imports since 1917 have been as follows:

1918.

1919.

1920

1921.

1922

1923

Year.

Pounds. Value. Duty. Rate.

$57,097 463,224

HAWAIIAN RECIPROCITY TREATY. See RECIPROCITY, ETC.

HAY AND STRAW. About four-fifths of the domestic hay is consumed on farms where grown, while the trade is in large part due to the demand for horse feed in the urban centers. Timothy, the principal variety of the Northern States, is preferred for this purpose.

Production. The crop of "tame" hay, approximately three-fourths of which is raised in the Northern States, averaged over 80,000,000 tons in the years 1914 to 1918, and its farm value was over $1,000,000,000. Production in 1921 was 81,567,000 tons of tame hay, and 15,235,000 tons of wild hay, the farm value of the two being $1,090,776,000. The figures for 1922 show an increase, namely, 96,687,000 tons of tame hay, and 16,104,000 tons of wild hay, with a combined value of $1,331,679,000.

Imports of hay fluctuate according to domestic crop conditions. From 1910 to 1914 they ranged from 96,763 to 699,213 tons. Partly because of quarantines, which prohibit imports from nearly all countries, and also because of the high cost of transporting so bulky a product, Canada is the only foreign competitor in domestic markets. Shipments move from the eastern Provinces to adjacent eastern markets and consist principally of timothy. Statistics for recent years follow:

Report T. I. S.-20.

63, 154 52, 005 37,444 $1,797, 396 $1, 003, 724 $742,030

121,604

$5,710 46, 322

10

38,791

267, 458

26,746

10

80,245

467,127

47, 654 4, 152

10

60

try should be avoided. But where inequality has crept into the laws it is never too early to begin to head the ship in the right direction.” 1

"For more than 20 years existing legislation has enticed capital and labor into manufactures. *** To strike them down now at a blow looks like cruelty and bad faith." 2

*

"The labor vote, holding the balance of power and better organized than ever before, joined the Democrats. * * *They evidently thought they did not get their share of the profits of their labor by an increase of wages. * * Working men saw the capitalists going to Europe to spend the fortunes acquired in America, while labor was not in an equal degree benefited by protection."3 (See also TARIFF HISTORY, UNITED STATES.) HAYNE, ROBERT Y. (1791-1839); 1823-1832, United States Senator; participated in 1832 in a notable debate with Daniel Webster (see) upon the principles of the Constitution, the authority of the General Government, and the rights of the States. He opposed a protective tariff as unconstitutional and oppressive, favored tariff for revenue only, and opposed Henry Clay (see) in 1832 by an amendment to Clay's resolution in the Senate, which provided a reduction of duties to a point that would afford a revenue necessary to defray the actual expenses of the Government, which amendment was defeated. In the debate that followed Senator Hayne maintained "the right of a State, under the Federal compact, to arrest the operation of a law adopted by Congress and sanctioned by the President, which the State in convention should decide to be unconstitutional."

The Legislature of South Carolina called a State convention to meet in Columbia, November 24, 1832, over which Hayne presided, and the ordinance of nullification (see) was adopted. In the following December Senator Hayne was elected Governor of the State, and resigned his seat in the Senate to assume the governorship. When President Jackson (see), on December 10, 1832, issued his proclamation denouncing the measure, Governor Hayne replied defiantly and prepared for armed resistance. This led to the compromise measure proposed by Clay and the President, and the Legislature of South Carolina called another State convention, presided over by Governor Hayne, which repealed the ordinance of nullification.

References: Swift, Lindsay, ed., The Great Debate between Hayne and Webster, New York, 1898; Jervey, Theodore D., Robert Y. Hayne and His Times, New York, 1909.

HAZELNUTS. See FILBErts.
HEMLOCK, WESTERN. See LUMBER AND

HEMLOCK BARK. See EXTRACTS, DYEING, AND TANNING.

HEMP. (See also ROPES AND CORDAGE.) The hemp plant proper, or "common hemp," is Cannabis sativa, an annual belonging to the family Moraceae, but the term hemp is loosely applied to many other fibers. Including these, hemp flourishes on a large part of the earth's surface, growing wild in India and China and cultivated in many parts of Europe. Hemp is stronger, glossier, and more durable than cotton, but more costly to manufacture; in these respects it is similar to flax, but it is somewhat coarser than flax and even more difficult to bleach. Its great strength and resistance to rotting in water make

From prepared address in 1872: Williams, Charles Richard, Life of Rutherford B. Hayes, Boston, 1914, pp. 371-372. Letter, 1887, quoted by Williams, op. cit., p. 370. Diary of Nov. 9, 1892, quoted by Williams, op. cit., p. 376,

it an excellent material for all cordage purposes; its relatively high cost, however, confines its use mainly to those articles where strength is the prime factor, such as shoe thread, certain types of commercial twines, tarred rigging for ships, and elevator ropes. Large cordage, like ships' cables and hawsers, is usually made of the cheaper manila.

Hemp (meaning hemp not hackled) is the fiber that has been extracted from the stem of the hemp plant, by methods similar to those used in extracting flax fiber, but which has undergone no further treatment. Hackled hemp consists of the longer fibers after the more or less complete combing out of the shorter fibers by hand or machine hackling operations. Hackled hemp is used alone or mixed with flax in the manufacture of twines, cordage, and fabrics. Tow of hemp consists of the shorter and less valuable fibers discarded in the hackling operations; the better grades are carded and spun into yarns for twines, cordage, and coarse coverings; the poorer grades are used in calking ships. Production.-In pre-war years, Russia, with an annual output of about 500,000 tons, produced about two-thirds of the world's hemp. The remainder was harvested mainly by AustriaHungary and Italy. The finest quality is produced in Italy. The output from Russia has greatly declined as a result of the World War.

The United States is a relatively small producer of hemp. It produced in 1914, 1,339 tons; in 1918, 9,375 tons; in 1921, about 3,400 tons; in 1922, 1,344 tons, which constituted 16 per cent, 72 per cent, 30 per cent, and 23 per cent, respectively, of the domestic consumption in the same years. Prior to the war, Kentucky had the principal yield. In 1921 Wisconsin reported about two-thirds and Kentucky about three-tenths of the 11,000 acres devoted to hemp. In 1922 and in 1923 the acreage dropped to 4,300 and 1,815, respectively, Wisconsin having had 2,500 acres in 1922 and 900 acres in 1923.

Imports in 1914 of unhackled hemp were 7,880 tons, valued at $1,443,994; of hackled hemp, 451 tons, valued at $83,911; of hemp tow, 262 tons, valued at $40,250; a total of 8,593 tons, valued at $1,568,155. Italy was the main source and Russia supplied the next largest amount. Imports since 1917 have been as follows:

HEMP FABRICS. HEMPSEED. See HEMPSEED OIL. EXTRACTED.

See FLAX, HEMP, ETC.
SEEDS, OIL BEARING,
See OILS, EXPRESSED AND

HENBANE. See BELLADONNA. HERRING AND MACKEREL. The bulk of the herring catch destined for human consumption is salted or pickled, and smoked, sold as bloaters, or hard smoked and dried. The last named are further prepared by skinning and boning, A comparatively small quantity is sold fresh for food. Fresh herring are, however, used in large quantities as bait for the Pacific halibut fishing and in the manufacture of oil and fertilizer in Alaska and California. The immature herring is the fish used for sardines in the Maine sardine industry. A cured herring industry using the Scotch method of salt curing has been developed in Alaska during the past few years. The product is the equal of the Scotch cured herring.

Mackerel taken on the North Atlantic coast are extensively marketed as fresh fish. The surplus, after the fresh fish markets of this country are supplied, goes to the salters for preparation as salt mackerel. In localities remote from fresh fish markets the catches are generally salted. A relatively small quantity of mackerel is preserved by canning.

Production. Herring are taken in greatest abundance on the North Atlantic coast and on the Pacific Northwest coast from Puget Sound to Alaska. The average annual domestic catch is estimated to be 130,000,000 pounds. Fresh herring taken off the New England coast in 1919 amounted to 97,630,195 pounds, valued at $589,093. The catch off the Pacific coast was 2,906,033 pounds in 1915. The product of the herring fisheries in Alaska in 1917 amounted to $562,002; in 1921 to 19,124,774 pounds, valued at $934,074; and in 1922 to 43,679,156 pounds, valued at $2,329,116. The quantity of herring used in the sardine industry in 1921 was: Maine, sea herring, 73,706,536 pounds, valued at $441,353; California, pilchards, 38,274,853 pounds, valued at $175,165. The quantity of herring used in the Maine sardine industry in 1922 was 96,458,400 pounds, valued at $623,198. The domestic catch of mackerel is taken chiefly off the New England coast. In 1919 the fresh mackerel from this region amounted to 14,527,950 pounds, valued at $1,451,490.

The total production of salted or pickled herring for continental United States and Alaska in 1919 amounted to 18,823,979 pounds, valued at $1,101,000, compared with 22,150,974 pounds, valued at $669,000, in 1914. The total production of salted and pickled mackerel in 1919 amounted to 5,162,900 pounds, valued at $1,006,000, compared with 6,224,313 pounds, valued at $520,000, in 1914.

Imports in 1914 of herring, pickled or salted, amounted to 93,769,564 pounds, valued at $3,373,249. In the same year imports of mackerel, pickled or salted, amounted to 31,496,847 pounds, valued at $1,729,718. Later statistics follow (000 omitted):

HERRING OIL. See OILS, FISH. HEXAMETHYLENETETRAMINE is an organic compound obtained by treating formaldehyde with ammonia. When first introduced it was used under various trade names as an important medicinal chemical. In recent years it has assumed commercial importance for accelerating the vulcanization of rubber and as a raw material in the manufacture of the synthetic resin "redmanol."

Production. Hexamethylenetetramine is obtained as a white crystalline product by evaporating a solution of formaldehyde which has been saturated with ammonia. Production in pounds has been as follows: 1921, 981,927; 1922, 2,015,161; 1923, 1,201,073.

Imports for 1914 were 11,470 pounds, valued at $21,136-49 per cent from Germany and 42 per cent from Switzerland.

Exports.-Statistics not available.

HIDES OF CATTLE, RAW OR DRIED, ETC. Cattle hides are employed principally in shoe bag, and strap leathers. leathers and in belting, harness, upholstery, case,

(SEE LEATHER, CATTLE HIDE.)

variety of leathers. Hides vary greatly in charThe tanning and finishing processes give a wide acter, according to the conditions under which the animal is reared, its breeding, age, sex, and many other factors. Animals raised without shelter, obtaining their subsistence largely from roughage, produce tough, close-grained hides. Cattle of good breeding and which have been given good care and concentrated feeds furnish fine-grained, but frequently weak, hides. Domestic hides are known as "packer" or "country," the former taken off at the meat-packing establishments, the latter at small slaughterhouses. Packer hides, as a rule, command the higher price because of greater care in the removal. Kips are usually young cattle hides, weighing from 15 to 25 pounds, but East Indian kips are small cattle hides.

Production of cattle hides numbered about 11,000,000 in 1914, averaging about 50 pounds each. In 1922, the number of cattle slaughtered was 13,148,192; in 1923, 13,882,600.

Imports. In 1913 this country imported 268,042,390 pounds of cattle hides (green and dry) about 82,000,000 pounds from Europe, 86,500,000 pounds from South America, 77,300,000 pounds from North America, 15,200,000 pounds from Asia, and 7,200,000 pounds from Australasia and Africa. The imports are classified as (1) dry cattle hides and (2) green or pickled cattle hides. During the war imports of dry cattle hides rapidly increased. Argentina remained the chief source of supply; Russia was practically eliminated by 1917, and shipments from China and South American countries, especially from Brazil and Colombia, increased.

Imports of green or pickled cattle hides also increased rapidly, but not in the ratio of the dry hides. In 1913 the principal sources for green or pickled cattle hides were Argentina, Canada, France, Russia in Europe, and Mexico. One result of the war was that South American hides found an increased market in this country.

Survey FL-19.

HISTORICAL SCHOOL, a group of economists of the nineteenth century who opposed the alleged abstract doctrines of the classical economic writers (see FREE TRADE) and endeavored to establish a new economic method by a detailed examination of history in its evolutionary aspects. The inception and main development of this school was in Germany. The principal early writers and the year of publication of their chief works are as follows: Wilhelm Roscher (1843), Bruno Hildebrand (1848), Charles Knies (1853). Later economists of the school in Germany include Gustav Schmoller (see), Lujo Brentano, Karl Bücher, and Werner Sombart. In England exponents of the historical method were Cliffe Leslie (Essays on Political and Moral Philosophy), Arnold Toynbee in his lectures on the Industrial Revolution, William Cunningham (Growth of English Industry and Commerce), William J. Ashley (An Introduction to English Economic History and Theory), Sidney and Beatrice Webb (History of Trade Unionism and Industrial Democracy,) and Charles Booth (Life and Labor of the People of London).

The contributions of the historical school are in part critical and in part constructive. The principal criticisms directed toward the classical school were levied against (1) its universalism, (2) its rudimentary psychology based upon egotism, and (3) its abuse of the deductive method. It was argued that the "universalism" of the classical writers assumed that the economic laws formulated by themselves were applicable everywhere and at all times. This was denied by the historians, who asserted that economie rules are relative, and differ under varying social conditions. There are no principles of economic legislation that can uniformly be applied at all times to all countries.

The classical view of man as a creature controlled by egoistic economic motives was also criticized. The historical school emphasized other interests; for example, national prestige, custom, sentiment of duty, etc.

Furthermore, the classicists were reproached for forming their laws too exclusively from abstract deduction without a careful investigation of facts.

On the positive side the historical school tried to show the unity of economic with social forces. Each society possesses an original social existence to which correspond original economic rules. An effort was made to develop principles of historical sequence by which to explain economic facts, but was not very successful. The great contribution of the historical school has been its many careful investigations of economic conditions, past and present; these have furnished a wide and accurate basis for the knowledge of economic life.1

Friedrich List (see) and H. C. Carey (see) were closely allied to the historical school although they are not usually classified with it.

HISTORY OF TARIFF. See TARIFF HISTORY. HOARHOUND. See SPICES, ETC.

HOES. See SHOVELS, ETC. HOGSHEADS. CASKS, BARRELS, ETC. HOLLANDS, COTTON WINDOW. See CLOTHS. HOLLOW WARE. See HOUSEHOLD AND HOSPITAL UTENSILS.

HOME MARKET. See CLAY, HENRY; SHADWELL, JOHN L.; TARIFF RATES.

HOME PORT is that port established by law at or nearest to which the owner resides, or, if there be more than one owner, that port at or nearest to which the "husband" or managing owner usually resides. It is also the port at which a vessel's permanent documents issue.2 HOME VALUATION. See DUTIABLE VALUE. HONES AND WHETSTONES. See ABRASIVE MATERIALS.

HONEY. Commercial honey is marketed in two forms-comb and extracted. Comb honey and the better grades of extracted honey are used for table purposes, while the darker and the poorer grades of extracted honey are used in the manufacture of fancy cakes and biscuits. Invert sugar is the baker's substitute for honey.

Production on farms was 61,099,290 pounds in 1899, 54,814,890 pounds in 1909, and 55,224,061 pounds in 1919. These figures include only the and on small farms be included, the total in 1919 farm production. If the production in small towns pounds. Apiculture is a side line with many would approximate 150,000,000 to 200,000,000 farmers and gardeners, but is gradually becoming more important as a main enterprise. gallons, valued at $57,195, principally from Cuba, Imports of honey for 1910-1914 averaged 104,517 Mexico, and Haiti. Following the reduction of the duty from 20 cents to 10 cents per gallon, imports in 1914 declined to 75,079 gallons, valued at $38,665. They increased greatly during the war,

1909, pp. 436-471 (His ory of Economic Doc rines), London, 1915, 1 Gide and Rist, Histoire des Doctrines Économiques, Paris, PP. 379-407); Schüller, Richard, Die Wirtschaftspolitik der Historischen Schule, Berlin, 1899; Palgrave, Dictionary of Polit ical Economy: Haney, Lewis H., History of Economic Thought, New York, 1911, pp. 408-421.

Cust. Reg. 1923, art. 31.

In 1922 the United Kingdom received almost one-half of the American exports, while the Netherlands received but 17 per cent.

HOOFS, UNMANUFACTURED. The hoofs of neat cattle yield a pale yellow oil, called "neat'sfoot oil," almost wholly olein, the liquid part of fat, as distinguished from stearin, the solid portion. It is a fine lubricant and is extensively employed as a leather dressing. Hoofs are used in making buttons and novelties.

Imports are combined in official statistics with horns and parts of. They come principally from Argentina, Canada, and Uruguay.

Export statistics are combined with those for horns and parts of. Survey FL-5.

HOOPS AND BANDS of iron or steel are of great length compared with their width and thickness, the width being not more than 8 inches and the thickness less than three-eighths of an inch. The term "hoop" is applied to flats having a thickness varying from No. 13 B. W. G. (inch) to No. 23 B. W. G. (3 inch) and a width from threeeighths inch to 8 inches. Owing to their great length, they are coiled like wire rods. Subsequently they are annealed, cut to length and shipped in bundles. If bent backward on itself like a flattened letter S, the material is called a scroll or scroll bundle. No clear line of demarcation exists between hoops, bands, and strips.

Production. In 1917 the entire output of hoops amounted to 347,186 tons; of bands and cotton ties, to 490,893 tons. In 1921 the output of these products aggregated 166,961 and 111,426; and in 1923 220,835 and 348.480 tons, respectively.

Imports.-Imports of hoop, band, and scroll iron and steel are small. In 1913 they amounted to 2,004 gross tons, valued at $300,161. These figures include some galvanized material. Since 1917 imports have been as follows:

119,725,535 65,454,226 59,969,456 $6,445, 155 $2,140,525 $2,373,429

A large part of the exported material goes to Canada and British India. Survey C-4.

Cotton ties, etc. The standard cotton tie, a strip of steel -inch wide by 1-inch thick (20 gauge) and 11 feet long, is chiefly used in tying bales of cotton. Once used, it is rerolled and used again.

Production is part of the output of rolling mills making hoops, wire nails, smooth wire, barbed wire, woven-wire fence, bars, spikes, and similar products. Four plants are located in Pennsylvania, one in Georgia, and one in Alabama. The annual production is estimated at 2,000,000 to 3,000,000 bundles of 45 pounds each, approximately two-thirds of the world's output. Production of cotton ties in the United States in 1921 was estimated at 24,100, tons, valued at $1,339,000. England and Germany are the principal foreign producers.

Imports of hoop or band iron, etc., in 1915 were 1,416,538 pounds, valued at $22,552. Later statistics follow:

1920.

1921

2,452, 113

69,978

1922*

6, 165, 094

156,539