Mr. Polk approved of the act of 1816. He believed that the manufacturers of the United States were in a prosperous condition under that act, and for the eight years intervening between the years 1816 and 1824 and also that the act of 1816 afforded them ample incidental protection." When he entered Congress the act of 1824 was in force. The act of 1828 became a law in opposition to the wishes and vote of Polk. Polk voted for the act of 1832; he was not in Congress when the act of 1842 was passed, but he took occasion to make known his opposition to the law. The act of 1846 became law in Polk's administration, and was cordially approved by him." The following extracts from Polk's utterances | are illustrative of his views: "Care should be taken that all the great interests of the country, including manufactures, agriculture, commerce, navigation, and the mechanic arts, should, as far as may be practicable, derive equal advantage from the incidental protection which a just system of revenue duties may afford. Taxation, direct or indirect, is a burden, and it should be so imposed as to operate as equally as may be on all classes in proportion of their ability to bear it. To make the taxing power an actual benefit to one class necessarily increases the burden for the others beyond their proportion, and would be manifestly unjust: The terms 'protection to domestic industry' are of popular import, but they should apply under a just system to all the various branches of industry in our country. The farmer or planter who toils yearly in his fields is engaged in domestic industry,' and is as much entitled to have his labor 'protected' as the manufacturer, the man of commerce, the navigator, or the mechanic, who are engaged also in domestic industry' in their different pursuits. The joint labor of all these classes constitutes the aggregate of the domestic industry' of the Nation, and they are equally entitled to the Nation's 'protection'. No one of them can justly claim to be the exclusive recipient of 'protection 'which can only be afforded by increasing burdens on the 'domestic industry? of others.3 "Protection involves a partnership between the Government and the favored classes, the former receiving the proceeds of the tax imposed on articles imported and the latter the increased price of similar articles produced at home, caused by such tax."4 He recommends in his first annual message a reduction in the tariff and prefers the ad valorem to the specific duty. In a special message of June 16, 1846, the President presents a plan from the Secretary of the 1 Congressional Debates, Vol. IX, p. 1170. * Jenkins, John S., James Knot Polk, Auburn, 1851, pp. 76-82. 8 Messages and Papers of the Presidents, Washington, 1911, p. 2254. • Ibid., p. 2506. fireasury (see WALKER, ROBERT J.) for the modi fication of the duties. He says: "The high duties at present levied on many articles totally exclude them from importation, whilst the quantity and the amount of others which are imported are greatly diminished. By reducing these duties to a revenue standard, it is not doubted that a large amount of the articles on which they are imposed would be imported, and a corresponding amount of revenue be received at the Treasury from this source."5 In his third annual message the President reports the satisfactory working of the act of 1846 in its first year, and says: "All the beneficial effects which were anticipated from its operation have been fully realized." The revenue for the year was an increase over the preceding of $8,000,000. Similarly, favorable results are reported during the following year." During Polk's term the law was passed authoriz ing imported goods subject to duty to be warehoused in the public stores for a limited period, the duties to be paid when the goods were removed. (See WAREHOUSES, CUSTOMS.) POPPY SEED. See SEEDS, OIL-BEARING. POPPY-SEED OIL. See OILS, EXPRESSED OR EXTRACTED. POPULATION, INCREASE OF. The increase of population is supposed to be a dynamic force which has much influence upon economic conditions. According to the theory advanced by Thomas Malthus (see), the population tends to multiply beyond the resources available to support life. According to the Darwinian theory, this tendency is manifested among all living creatures, and hence result the struggle for existence and the survival of the fittest. Many believe that the struggle for existence is no less keen among men than among the lower animals. In human society, however, mutual conflict to a considerable extent is replaced by cooperation within certain groups. In the progress of civilization, through division of labor, cooperative groups become increasingly larger, until they may embrace the nation. At this point the struggle for existence may be largely a contest between nations, distinguished by various acts of national aggression and defense. Many measures of commercial protection seem to belong to this phase. (See TARIFF HISTORY.) With increasing international division of labor the more hopeful see the cooperative group widened to its fullest extent to include the nations. A certain density of population is necessary to the greatest efficiency in exploiting the earth's resources. Beyond this point, it is argued, increasing numbers press against natural resources so compactly as to necessitate a low standard of living, including low wages. In these circumstances a struggle may arise between the industries of the low-standard and high-standard groups. This is discussed under the titles PROTECTION and COST OF PRODUCTION. The following tables show statistics of the expansion of population in the last and the present century. Messages and Papers of the Presidents, Washington, 1911, Vol. XI, p. 597. Ibid., p. 2403. 1Ibid., p. 2497. Jenkins, John S., op. cit., p. 281. Other references: The Diary of James K. Polk, Chicago, 1910; Chase, Lucien B., History of the Polk Administration, New York, 1850. 1 Most, Dr. Otto, Bevölkerungswissenschaft, Berlin, 1913, pp. 39, 60. NOTE. These figures were compiled from two separate tables, and there may be found, therefore, some slight discrepancies between the figures given under "increase" and the result of subtracting "death rate" from "birth rate. Population of certain countries at specified times.1 Great Britain 1. 1911 Italy. 40,831,396 1921 1914 148,910,000 1920 1921 42,767,530 130,707, 600 59,857, 283 $37,276,738 $35,835, 941 37, 499, 394 1920 105,710, 620 1 Census reports quoted by The Economist, Sept. 3, 1921, p. 364. "Great Britain" here does not include Ireland. 2 For year 1914 estimated from census of 1897 and later birth and death registration; all figures are for present territory of Soviet Russia; for 1920 from census by the Soviet Government, Commerce Reports, Feb. 6, 1922, p. 347, & Statesman's Year-Book. Germany lost about 6,000,000 of her population in ceded territory after the war. Census reports, quoted by The London Economist, Oct. 7, 1922, p. 586. Old territory. Territory with the new Provinces. 7 Census reports quoted by Economic World, Aug. 20, 1921, p. 279. Figures do not in either case include Alsace Lorraine. France gained 1,874,000 persons in the territory of AlsaceLorraine ceded by treaty from Germany. 8U. S. Statistical Abstract, 1921, p. 823. Other references: Taussig, F. W., Principles of Economics, New York, 1913, Vol. II, pp. 209-237; Isaacson, Edward, The Malthusian Limit, London, 1912; Malthus, Thomas Robert, An Essay on the Principle of Population, London, 1826; Nitti, Francesco S., La Population et le Système Social, Paris, 1897; Rageot, Gaston, La Natalie, Les Lois Économiques et Psycho logiques, Paris 1918: Carr, Saunders, A. M., The Population Problem, Oxford, 1922. PORCELAIN (the word is derived from porcellana, meaning sea-shell) is oriental and continental European chinaware (see). Introduced extensively from the Orient by Portuguese and Dutch traders, it displaced the table service of pewter and ordinary pottery at one time generally used in Europe. The discovery, by the alchemist Böttger, of the methods of manufacture from Bohemian kaolin and feldspar, both found near Dresden, led in 1870 to the establishment, by the Elector of Saxony, of the royal factory at Meissen, whose product is, still known as Dresden china. The emulation of other rulers led to the founding of several state-endowed porcelain works, equipped with the best chemical talent available, and also promoted the discovery of other kaolin deposits. Fostered by State patronage, local bodies of 36,075 skilled operatives were developed. With the advantage of a specialized and hereditary labor supply, trained from childhood to handle the fragile material, the Meissen industry long held the field, but the efforts of Josiah Wedgwood, of England (1730-1795), blazed the way for a more general distribution of the art. That this was not confined to Europe is shown by the progress made in the United States, based not merely on copying but leading to the more general production of "American china." This material has two advantages over porcelain (1) About 8,893 105,651 55,818 100, 173 13,192 19,366 16,935 34,802 56,862 32,475 38,980 39,282 77,292 34,418 91,972 Newsholme, Arthur, The Declining Birth Rate, New York, in being less fragile and (2) in its capacity for bril1911, p. 14. Production in continental Europe is generally in small plants of less than six kilns, the largest not running over nine. In France there are two centers of production, Berry (Vierzon) and Limousin (Limoges), with a total of 18,000 workmen, onethird less than before the war. In Germany the producing centers are mainly in Bavaria, Saxony, and Thuringia, with 104 general and tableware plants, and 66 plants confined to ornamental and bric-a-brac wares in porcelain. The Czechoslovakian industry is near the Bavarian and Saxon border. The oriental porcelain industry is generally community production, with small crude kilns. There is, however, at least one large plant with European equipment and organization. Imports are listed under chinaware. PORCELAIN, ELECTRICAL AND CHEMICAL. See CHINAWARE. PORK, FRESH. Over 67,000,000 hogs were slaughtered in 1922 and the production of dressed pork was 9,162,000,000 pounds. As pork packing is well adapted to small establishments concentration therein is much less marked than in the slaughter of other food animals. Of the hogs handled in 1916 by interstate slaughterers, 18.4 per cent were slaughtered in Chicago, as compared with 24.5 per cent of the cattle. Imports of fresh pork previous to 1914 ranged from 130,000 pounds to 260,000 pounds. With the removal of the duty in 1914 they rose to 4,700,000 pounds, and in 1915 to 16,200,000 pounds, almost all of which came from Canada. Later statistics follow: of delivery. The master of any United States vessel is not prohibited from making entry with the collector of any district in which such vessel may be owned, or from which she may have sailed in the voyage from which she shall have then returned.. PORTS, FREE. See FREE PORTS. POSTAL CONVENTION. See MULTILATERAL CONVENTIONS, POSTAL SUBVENTIONS AND SUBSIDIES. See SHIPPING DISCRIMINATIONS, ETC. POSTS. See POLES AND POSTS; HUBS FOR WHEELS; POSTS, ETC. POTASSIUM COMPOUNDS. Bicarbonate. Potassium bicarbonate is a white crystalline substance which evolves carbon dioxide on treatment with an acid. It is used for making potassium carbonate of high purity, as an antacid, and in the preparation of effervescing salts. Production.Potassium bicarbonate is prepared by saturating a solution of potassium carbonate with carbon dioxide and crystallizing the resulting bicarbonate. Production by one firm in 1918 is included with potassium carbonate, infra. Imports prior to 1914 had increased to about 300,000 pounds per year, valued at about $15,000. In 1914 the import was about 480,000 pounds Later statistics follow: 394, 027 33,352 1922* 10,280 3,234 31.46 Pounds.. 1,716, 989 1,541, 009 Value.... $375, 306 $415, 092 1923.. 547,963 $108,959 265,675 1,097,975 $56, 207 $212,549 322,671 19,954 4,840 24.26 Exports of fresh pork are unimportant compared with exports of other pork products. Before the war they ranged from 1,040,000 to 2,597,000 pounds, but in 1916 expanded to 63,005,000 pounds. The United Kingdom took 26,402,000 pounds and Canada 32,962,000 pounds. Later statistics follow: Pounds.. Value.. Bromide. See BROMINE AND BROMINE COMPOUNDS. Carbonate. Potassium carbonate was formerly obtained from wood ashes, but little now comes from this source except that derived from the immense forests in Russia. Much is manufactured from the Stassfurt salts and some from the distillery waste of molasses in beet-sugar production. It is used in soft soaps, Bohemian and flint glass, and 11,632, 635 38, 305, 236 26, 974. 147 54,691, 196 in dyeing and wool washing. PORT as used in United States customs laws means any place from which merchandise can be shipped for exportation or at which merchandise can be imported. (R. S. 2767.) PORT OF ENTRY refers to any place at which a customs officer is stationed with authority to enter and clear vessels and collect duties on imports. It is in general unlawful to make entry at any other port. Every port of entry is also a port 1 Cust. Reg. 1923, art. 2. In Production. A small quantity of crude carbonate of potash was produced in this country during the war, chiefly from wood ashes-1,035 tons of crude material in 1917 and 438 tons in 1920. 1918 the output of refined potassium carbonate and bicarbonate was 229,287 pounds, of which 201,574 pounds, valued at $104,432, were sold. In 1919, 48,664,478 pounds, valued at $2,300,027, were produced. Imports of carbonate of potash formerly averaged about 20,000,000 pounds, chiefly from Germany, falling to a minimum of about 2,000,000 pounds in 1916. In 1918 the imports were over 90 per cent from Russia. Imports since 1917 are shown in the following poses, and as a chemical reagent. Wherever tables: Pounds. Value. $2,273, 202 191,265 possible the cheaper sodium salt is now substituted for the potassium salt. Production.-Potassium chromate and dichromate are prepared from chrome iron ore or chromite, the larger portion of which is imported. The ore is pulverized and mixed with lime and potassium carbonate. This mixture is then heated to a 510,700 bright red in a strong current of air. The fused mass is then lixiviated with water, forming a solution of calcium and potassium chromates. Potash, usually potassium sulphate, is added to the solution to convert the calcium ehromate into potassium chromate. The clear solution of potassium chromate is then drawn off and treated with sulphuric acid, thus producing potassium dichromate, which is crystallized from the solution. 8,593, 268 1920. 16,903, 554 1921. 4,048, 902 1922. 4,074, 769 202,655 207,055 1919. 65,974 45, 640 Exports. Statistics not available. Chloride (Muriate of Potash). Potassium chloride is known commercially as muriate of potash. When pure it is a white crystalline solid readily soluble in water. It occurs as sylvite (or sylvine) and also as carnalite, a mixed chloride of potassium and magnesium, in the Stassfurt and other salt deposits of Europe. Large quantities are made from Stassfurt carnalite, and it is also obtained from kelp and from the liquors left from the manufacture of salt from sea water. The 1919. chief use of the crude substance is as a fertilizer. It is also a material in the preparation of caustic potash and potassium chlorate by the electrolytic 1922 t. process. Production. Some potassium chloride has been produced here since the war. In 1918, 30,127 tons of the crude salt were obtained, and in addition 6,559 tons of low-grade potassium chloride. In 1919, 144,435,589 pounds, valued at $4,169,333, were produced. Imports in 1914 were 234,855 tons, valued at $7,925,781. Imports since 1917 have been as follows: Chromate and Dichromate, These two salts of chromic acid have similar uses, and are readily converted into each other. Both crystallize well, but the dichromate, being much less soluble in cold water, crystallizes better and is the one usually prepared. Both crystallize more readily than the corresponding sodium salt and are therefore more readily purified. Potassium dichromate is used to a much greater extent than the potassium chromate, owing to its greater richness in chromic acid and the fact that it is more easily crystallized and purified. It is a strong oxidizing agent. The chief uses of these salts are in the chrome tanning of leather, textile dyeing and printing, manufacture of chrome pigments and colors, pickling of brass, and the electro-engraving of copper plates. They are also employed in bleaching oils and fats, for other oxidation pur Survey A-18. Chlorate and Perchlorate. Potassium chlorate or chlorate of potash is a white crystalline substance not readily soluble in water. It is a strong oxidizing agent and when mixed with sulphur and charcoal forms an explosive powder. It is used in the manufacture of matches, fireworks, percussion caps, and explosive powders, in dyeing, and in medicine. Potassium perchlorate contains one more atom of oxygen than the chlorate, and therefore possesses greater oxidizing capacity per unit of quantity and is more stable than the chlorate. Its uses are similar to those of the chlorate. Production. Potassium chlorate is made by subjecting a solution of potassium chloride to the action of a direct current of electricity in an electrolytic cell. The perchlorate is made by electrolytic oxidation of the chlorate or by treating sodium perchlorate with potassium chloride. In 1914 the combined production of sodium and potassium chlorates was 8,304 short tons, valued at $1,131,316. The output of potassium chlorate in 1918 by three firms was 9,753,424 pounds, valued at $2,837,892. Production of potassium perchlorate was reported in 1918 by one firm only. Imports of potassium chlorate have been rather sporadic, the largest before 1920 being over 1,200,000 pounds in 1913. Japan has been active recently Survey A-16. Cyanide. Potassium cyanide is a white crystalline solid, readily soluble in water, and extremely poisonous. Sodium cyanide, much cheaper and having a higher percentage of cyanide, has practically replaced potassium cyanide, which is made either by fusing potassium ferrocyanide with potassium carbonate and carbon, or by fusing cyanamid with potassium chloride and carbon. Its principal use is for the extraction of gold and silver from their ores; also for fumigation (notably that of citrus fruits), as a solvent for electroplating baths, and as a flux in assaying and metallurgy. Production. Separate figures are not available, but before the war the domestic output did not supply the demand. While imports were cut off, the demand was supplied by the production of sodium cyanide instead of potassium cyanide. Imports prior to 1913 averaged more than 2,000,000 pounds (over 90 per cent coming from Germany), declining to a minimum of about 44,000 pounds in 1916. Imports since 1917 are shown below: 1918. 1919. 1920. 1921.. 1922.. 1923. ** Year. Pounds. Value. Duty. Rate. 15,516 $29, 201 $310 1.06 34,007 18,096 680 3.76 Exports. Statistics not available. Ferrocyanide (Yellow Prussiate of Potash). Potassium ferrocyanide, known as yellow prussiate of potash, forms in large yellow crystals containing water of crystallization. When heated or exposed to dry air, the crystals become a white powder. Potassium ferrocyanide is used in the preparation of Prussian blue, in calico printing, for dyeing silk, for casehardening of iron, and for making potassium cyanide and ferricyanide. Small amounts are used in the manufacture of some explosives and as a reagent in analytical chemistry. Within the last few years sodium ferrocyanide has replaced potassium for most purposes because it is much cheaper. facture was to fuse nitrogenous animal matter Production. Formerly the method of manu(hides, hoofs, hair, blood, or other animal waste) with potassium carbonate and iron borings. At present potassium ferrocyanide is produced almost entirely as a by-product of the manufacture and purification of coal gas. The exhausted purifying agent is first treated with water to dissolve out ammonia and soluble salts, then dried, the sulphur extracted with carbon bisulphide, and the residue mixed with lime. This is then heated with steam and forms calcium ferrocyanide, and on treatment with potassium chloride a double calcium potassium ferrocyanide is produced. When the latter is treated with potassium carbonate, calcium carbonate separates and potassium ferrocyanide remains in solution and may be recovered by evaporation. Late figures for production are not available. In 1914 the United States produced 3,204,684 pounds, which probably represented a little less than half of the total consumption. Production in 1918 by three firms was 457,267 pounds and sales were 306,535 pounds, valued at $204,190. This decrease from 1914 was due to substitution of sodium ferrocyanide. Imports for 1914 amounted to 3,508,229 pounds, more than 50 per cent of which came from Germany and about 27 per cent from England. Later statistics follow: Exports. Statistics not available. Ferricyanide (Red Prussiate of Potash). Potassium ferricyanide is also known commercially as red prussiate of potash. It crystallizes from water in large red anhydrous crystals. It is poisonous, readily soluble in water, and is used in calico printing, in the manufacture of blue-print paper, and in the production of blue pigments. Production.-Red prussiate of potash is manufactured by treating a solution of yellow prussiate of potash with chlorine. Production by two firms in 1918 was reported to the Geological Survey. |