between individuals in their ordinary business transactions. The law is not understood, or, if understood, it is not willingly observed by both parties; there is a disagreement as to facts, or, from some cause, one party is aggrieved, and he seeks relief by bringing the case before a court. The question as to the facts may be determined by a jury who hear the testimony. The court declares the law in the case, and renders a decision according to law. When a crime is committed, the state is the aggrieved party, and action is brought in the name of the state.

Interpretation of Laws.- Courts, in the objects which they accomplish, are closely allied to the executive work of governing, but in the means which they use in deciding cases, they are allied to the legislative department. They interpret the law, add new meaning to the law, and, in effect, make new laws. It is impossible, in written statutes, to provide for all the particulars and details which may arise in the administration of the law. The statutes are general in their terms; they embody principles of justice. The courts apply the law to particular cases.

The decisions of higher courts have the force of law with lower courts. As these decisions multiply, the additions to the law from this source become of greater importance.

The legislative, executive, and judicial work are not entirely in the hands of separate officers. The local boards in counties, townships, school districts, and town councils, have both legislative and executive functions. The mayor, as a member of the town council, has legislative duties; he is chief executive officer of the town,

and may be the chief judicial officer of a town. The justice of the peace has chiefly judicial duties, but he has some executive duties.

The Division in Lower Offices not Important. There are acts of government which are not easily classified, and it is not wise to push this division into departments too far. Such a division is useful so far as it is an aid to the understanding of government. If it is carried out too minutely, it becomes a source of confusion. A court cannot perform its work without a ministerial officer to execute its processes. Does this officer belong to the executive or judicial department? A justice of the peace is his own clerk, keeps his own records. The district court has its records kept by the county clerk. To which department of government does the county clerk belong? These are fruitless questions. If you know what constables, sheriffs, and marshals do, and what clerks of courts do, you have all that is essential. It is a matter of little consequence where they are classified. It is only among the higher officers of government that this division into departments is of real importance.

CHAPTER XVIII.

COMPENSATION OF OFFICERS.

TEACHERS are often confronted with the troublesome questions: How is this officer chosen? How much is he paid for his services? What is his term of office? The object of this chapter is to group together in compact form some answers to these questions.

Federal Officers. The President of the United States is chosen by electors in the several states, who are themselves elected by the people. His term of office is four years, and he receives a salary of $50,000.

The Vice-President of the United States is chosen in the same manner and at the same time as the President. His salary is $8000.

United States Senators are chosen by the legislatures of the states. They serve six years, and receive a salary of $5000. In addition to the salary their travelling expenses are paid, and there is an allowance of $125 for stationery, etc. There are two Senators from each state.

The states are divided into Representative Districts, and each district chooses by a popular vote a Representative to Congress. These serve two years and receive the same compensation as Senators. The number of

Representatives is now (1891) 356.

The Speaker of the House of Representatives receives a salary of $8000.

The members of the President's Cabinet receive $8000 per year. They are eight in number, are appointed by the President, and have no fixed term of office.

The two hundred thousand persons, more or less, who are required to do the executive work of the Federal government are all of them appointed. The more important are appointed by the President, with the approval of the Senate; others are appointed by the President alone, or by heads of departments, or other persons whom the President has appointed. Some are simply employed as laborers and receive no regular appointment.

The compensation of these public servants varies from the wages of ordinary unskilled laborers to $8000. The Postmaster of New York City receives $8000.

The term of office for many of the public officials is fixed by law at four years. Others have no fixed limit.

The Chief Justice of the United States and his associates are appointed by the President with the approval of the Senate. The Chief Justice receives a salary of $10,500. The eight Associate Justices of the Supreme Bench receive salaries of $10,000 each.

There is a Circuit Judge for each of the nine circuits of the United States, who receives a salary of $6000. There are about sixty District Judges, and they receive a salary of $5000.

All judges in Federal courts are appointed by the President with the approval of the Senate, and they "hold their office during good behavior."

State Officers. In the United States government the offices are filled chiefly by appointment. In the state nearly all offices are filled by popular election.

State Senators are chosen in senatorial districts. They are fifty in number, serve four years, and receive $550 per session, and five cents mileage.