the Indus. [Hypht sis R.]—19. His ret rn to Persia. [Persian Gulf. Gedrósia.] His meas ures for consolidating his empire.-20. His sickness and death.-21. His character.-22. As judged of by his actions. The results of his conquests. [Seleucia.]-23. Contentions that followed his death.-24. Grecian confederacy against Macedónian supremacy. Sparta and Th ebes. Athens is finally compelled to yield to Antip' ater.-25. Cassan' der's usurpation. Views and conquests of Antigonus. Final dissolution of the Macedónian empire. [Ip' sus. Phryg' ia.]

26. The four kingdoms that arose on the ruins of the empire. Those of Egypt and Syria the most powerful.-27. The empire of Cassan' der. Usurpation of Demétrius. Character of his government. The war carried on against him.-28. Unsettled state of Mac' edon, Greece, and Western Asia.-29. Celtic invasion of Macedon. [Adriat' ic. Pannónia.]-30. Second Celtic Invasion. The Celts are repelled by the Phócians. Death of Brennus, their chief.-31. Antig'onus, son of Demétrius, recovers the throne of his father. Is invaded by Pyr' rhus, king of Epirus-32. Pyr' rhus marches into Southern Greece. Is repulsed by the Spartans. He enters Ar gos. His death.-33. Remarks on the death of Pyr' rhus. Ambitious views of Antig' onus 34. THE ACHE' AN LEAGUE. Arátus seizes Sicyon, which joins the league.-35. Arátus rescues Corinth, which at first joins the league. Conduct of Athens and Sparta.-36. Antig'onus II.-37. League of the Etolians, who invade the Messénians. [Etólia.] Defeat of Arátus. General war between the respective members of the two leagues.-38. Results of this The war between the Romans and Carthaginians. Policy of Philip II. of Mac'edon.39. He enters into an alliance with the Carthaginians. His defeat at Apollónia. [Apollónia.] -40. He causes the death of Arátus. Roman intrigues in Greece.-41. Overthrow of Philip's power. The Romans promise independence to Greece.-42. Remarks on the sincerity of the promise. Treatment of the Etolians. Extinction of the Macedónian monarchy. [Pyd' na.] -43. Unjust treatment of the Achæ'ans. Roman ambassadors insulted.-44. The Achæ' an war, and reduction of Greece to a Roman province. Remarks of Thirwall.-45. Henceforward Grecian history is absorbed in that of Rome. Condition of Greece since the Persian wars. In the days of Strabo.

war.

COTEMPORARY HISTORY.-1. Cotemporary annals of other nations:-Persians-Egyptians.HISTORY OF THE JEWS.-2. Rebuilding of the second temple of Jerusalem. The Jews during the reigns of Xerxes and Artaxerxes. Nehemiah's administration.-3. Judea a part of the sat rapy of Syria. Judea after the division of Alexander's empire. Judea invaded by Ptolemy Soter.-4. Judea subject to Egypt. Ptolemy-Philadelphus. The Jews place themselves under the rule of Syria.-5. Civil war among the Jews. Antiochus plunders Jerusalem. Attempts to establish the Grecian polytheism.-6. Revolt of the Mac' cabees.-7. Continuation of the war with Syria. [Bethóron.] Death of Judas Maccabéus.-8. The Syrians become masters of the country. Prosperity of the Jews under Simon Maccabéus.-9. The remaining history of the Jews.

10, GRECIAN COLONIES. Those of Thrace, Mac' edon, and Asia Minor. Of Italy, Sicily, and Cyrenaica. 11. MAGNA GRÆCIA. Early settlements in western Italy and in Sicily. [Cúma. Neap' olis. Nax' os. Géla. Messana. Agrigen' tum.]—12. On the south-eastern coast of Italy. History of Sybaris, Crotóna, and Taren' tum. [Description of the same.]-13. First two centuries of Sicilian history. [Him' era.] Géla and Agrigentum. The despot Gélo.-14. Growing power of Syracuse under his authority.-15. The Carthaginians in Sicily-defeated by Gélo. [Panor' mus.]-16. Hiero and Thrasybulus. [Ætna.] Revolution and change of government.— 17. Civil commotions and renewed prosperity. [Kamarina.]-18. Syracuse and Agrigen' tum at the time of the breaking out of the Peloponnésian war. The Ion'ic and Dorian cities of Sicily during the struggle. Sicilian congress.-19. Quarrel between the cities of Selinus and Eges' ta. [Description of the same.] The Athenian expedition to Sicily. [Cat' ana.]-20. Events up to the beginning of the siege of Syracuse.-21. Death of Lam' achus, and arrival of Gylip' pus, the Spartan.-22. Both parties reinforced-various battles-total defeat of the Athenians.-23. Carthaginian encroachments in Sicily-resisted by Dionys' ius the Elder. Division between the Greek and Carthaginian territories. [Him' era.]-24. The administration of Timóleon. Of Agathocles. The Romans become masters of Sicily.

25. CYRENAICA.-Colonized by Lacedæmónians. Cyrene its chief city. Its ascendancy ever the Libyan tribes. War with the Egyptians.-26. Tyranny of Agesilaus-founding of Bar' ca -the war which followed. Agesilaus. Civil dissensions. Camby' ses.-27. Subsequent history of Cyréne and Bar' ca. Distinguished Cyréneans. Cyréneans mentioned i. Bible history.

1. MAC' EDON, or Macedónia, whose boundaries varied greatly at different times, had its south-eastern borders on the 'gean Sea, while farther north it was bounded by the river Stry' mon, which separated it from Thrace, and on the south by Thes' saly and Epírus. On the west Macedónia embraced, at times, many of the Illyrian tribes which bordered on the Adriatic. On the north the natural boundary was the mountain chain of Hæ' mus. The principal river of Macedónia was the Axius (now the Vardar), which fell into the Thermáic Gulf, now called the Gulf of Salon' iki.

2. The history of Macedónia down to the time of Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, is involved in great obscurity. The early Macedónians appear to have been an Illyr' ian tribe, different in race and language from the Hellénes or Greeks: but Herod'. otus states that the Macedónian monarchy was founded by Greeks from Ar' gos; and according to Greek writers, twelve or fifteen I. PHILIP OF Grecian princes reigned there before the accession of MACEDON. Philip, who took charge of the government about the year 360 B. C., not as monarch, but as guardian of the infant son of his elder brother.

3. Philip had previously passed several years at Thebes, as a hostage, where he eagerly availed himself of the excellent opportunities which that city afforded for the acquisition of various kinds of knowledge. He successfully cultivated the study of the Greek language; and in the conversation of such generals and statesmen as Epaminon' das, Pelop' idas, and their friends, became acquainted with the details of the military tactics of the Greeks, and learned the nature and working of their democratical institutions. Thus, with the superior mental and physical endowments which nature had given him, he became eminently fitted for the part which he afterwards bore in the intricate game of Grecian politics.

4. After Philip had successfully defended the throne of Mac' edon during several years, in behalf of his nephew, his military successes enabled him to take upon himself the kingly title, probably with the unanimous consent of both the army and the nation. He annexed several Thracian towns to his dominions, reduced the Illyr' ians and other nations on his northern and western borders, and was at times an ally, and at others an enemy, of Athens. At length, during the sacred war against the Phócians, the invitation which he received from the Thessálian allies of Thebes, as already noticed afforded him a pretence, which he had long coveted, for a more active inter

ference in the affairs of his southern neighbors. On entering Thes'saly, however, on his southern march, he was at first repulsed by the Phócians and their allies, and obliged to retire into Macedónia, but, soon returning at the head of a more numerous army, he defeated the enemy in a decisive battle, and would have marched upon Phócis at once to terminate the war, but he found the pass of Thermop' ylæ strongly guarded by the Athenians, and thought it prudent to withdraw his forces.

5. Still the sacred war lingered, although the Phócians desired peace; but the revengeful spirit of the Thebans was not allayed; Philip was again urged to crush the profaners of the national religion, and having succeeded, in spite of the warnings of the patriotic Demosthenes, in lulling the suspicions of the Athenians with proposals of an advantageous peace, he marched into Phócis, and compelled the enemy to surrender at discretion. The Amphictyon' ic council, being now reinstated in its ancient authority, with the power of Philip to enforce its decrees, doomed Phócis to lose her independence forever, to have her cities levelled with the ground, and her population, after being distributed in villages of not more than fifty dwellings, to pay a yearly tribute of sixty talents to the temple, until the whole amount of the plundered treasure should be restored. Finally, the two votes which the Phócians had possessed in the Amphictyon' ic council were transferred to the king of Mac' edon and his successors. The influence which Philip thus obtained in the councils of the Grecians paved the way for the overthrow of their liberties.

6. From an early period of his career Philip had aspired to the sovereignty of all Greece, as a secondary object that should prepare the way for the conquest of Persia, the great aim and end of all his ambitious projects; and after the close of the sacred war he accordingly exerted himself to extend his power and influence, either by arms or negotiation, on every side of his dominions; but his intrigues in At' tica, and among the Peloponnésian States, were for a time counteracted by the glowing and patriotic eloquence of the Athenian Demosthenes, the greatest of Grecian orators. In his military operations Philip ravaged Illyr' ia'-reduced Thes' saly more nearly to a Macedónian province-conquered a part of the

1. The term Illyria, or Illyr' icum was applied to the country bordering on the eastern shore of the Adriatic, and extending from the northern extremity of the Gulf south to the borders of Epirus. (Map No. VIII.)

Thracian territory-extended his power into Epírus and Acarnánia' -and would have gained a footing in E'lis and Acháia, on the western coast of the Peloponnésus, had it not been for the watchful jealousy of Athens, which concerted a league among several of the States to repel his encroachments.

7. The first open rupture with the Athenians occurred while Philip was engaged in subduing the Grecian cities on the Thracian coast of the Hel' lespont, in what was called the Thracian Chersonésus." A little later, the Amphictyon' ic council, through the influence of Es' chines, an orator second only to Demosthenes, but secretly devoted to the interests of the king of Mac' edon, appointed Philip to conduct a war against Amphis' sa,' a Lócrian town, which had been convicted of a sacrilege similar to that of the Phócians. It was now that Philip, hastily passing through Thrace at the head of a powerful army, first threw off the mask, and revealed his designs against the liberties of Greece by seizing and fortifying Elatéia the capital of Phócis which was conveniently situated for commanding the entrance into Bœótia.

The Thebans and the Athenians, suddenly awaking from their dream of security, from which all the eloquent appeals of Demosthenes had not hitherto been able to arouse them, prepared to defend their territories from invasion; but most of the Peloponnésian States kept aloof through indifference, rather than through fear. Even in Thebes and Athens there were parties whom the gold and persuasions of Philip had converted into allies; and when the armies marched forth to battle, dissensions pervaded their ranks. The spirit of Grecian liberty had already been extinguished.

9. The masterly policy of Philip still led him to declare that the sacred war against Amphis' sa, with the conduct of which he had

1. Acarnania, lying south of Epirus, also bordered on the Adriatic, or Ionian sea. From Ætólia on the east it was separated by the Achelóüs, probably the largest river in Greece. The Acarnanians were almost constantly at war with the Etolians, and were far behind the rest of the Greeks in mental culture. (Map No. I.)

2. The Thracian Chersonesus (“Thracian peninsula") was a peninsula of Thrace, between the Melian Gulf (now Gulf of Sáros) and the Hel' lespont. The fertility of its soil early attracted the Grecians to its shores, which soon became crowded with flourishing and popular cities. (Map No. III.)

3. Amphis' sa, the chief town of Lócris, was about seven miles west from Delphi, near the head of the Crissean Gulf, now Gulf of Salóna, a branch of the Corinthian Gulf. The modern town of Salóna represents the ancient Amphis' sa. (Map No. I.)

4. Elatéia, a city in the north-east of Phócis, on the left bank of the Cephis' sus, was about twenty-five miles north-east from Delphi. Its ruins are to be seen on a site colled Elepata. (Map No. I.)

been intrusted by the Amphictyon' ic council, was his only object; and he had a plausible excuse for entering Boótia when the Thebans and Athenians appeared as the allies of a city devoted by the gods to destruction. At Charonéa' the hostile armies met, nearly equal in number; but there was no Per' icles, nor Epaminon' das, to match the warlike abilities of Philip and the young prince Alexander, the latter of whom commanded a wing of the Macedónian army. The day was decided against the Grecians, although their loss in battle was not large; but the event broke up the feeble confederacy against Philip, and left each of the allied States at his mercy.

10. While Philip treated the Thebans with some severity, and obliged them to ransom their prisoners, and resign a portion of their territory, he exercised a degree of lenity towards the Athenians which excited general surprise-offering them terms of peace which they themselves would scarcely have ventured to propose to him. He next assembled a congress of all the Grecian States, at Corinth, for the purpose of settling the affairs of Greece. Here all his proposals were adopted, war was declared against Persia, and Philip was appointed commander-in-chief of the Grecian forces; but while he was making preparations for his great enterprise he was assassinated on a public occasion by a Macedónian nobleman, in revenge for some private wrong.

II. ALEXAN

GREAT.

11. Alexander, the son of Philip, then at the age of twenty years, succeeded his father on the throne of Mac' edon. At once the Illyr'. ians, Thracians, and other northern tribes that had been made tributary by Philip, took up arms to recover their DER THE independence; but Alexander quelled the spirit of revolt in a single campaign. During his absence on this expedition, the Grecian States, headed by the Thebans and Athenians, made prepara tions to shake off the yoke of Mac' edon; but Alexander, whose marches were unparalleled for their rapidity, suddenly appeared in their midst. Thebes, the first object of his vengeance, was taken by assault, in which six thousand of her warriors were slain. Ever distinguished by her merciless treatment of her conquered enemies, she was now

1. The plain of Cheronea, on which the battle was fought, is on the southern bank of the Cephis' sus river, in Baótia, a few miles from its entrance into the Copaic lake. In the year 447 B. C. the Athenians had been defeated on the same spot by the Boótians; and in the year 86 B. C. the same place witnessed a bloody engagement between the Romans, under Sylla, and the troops of Mithridates. (Map No. I.)

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