mained to him after the faithful performance of his various official duties, he assiduously devoted to learning; for he always took delight, as he tells us, "in learning, teaching, and writing." He was an indefatigable worker, and wrote no less than forty-five separate treatises, including works on Scripture, history, hymnology, astronomy, grammar, and rhetoric, in which is embodied all the learning of his age.

His scholarship and aptness as a teacher gave celebrity to the monastic school at Jarrow, which was attended at one time by six hundred monks in addition to many secular students. His fame extended as far as Rome, whither he was invited by Pope Sergius, who wished the benefit of his counsel. He led an eminently simple, devout, and earnest life. He declined the dignity of abbot, lest the duties of the office might interfere with his studies. As a writer he was clear, succinct, and artless. His "Ecclesiastical History," which was composed in Latin, is our chief source of information in regard to the early Anglo-Saxon church.

22. Alfred the Great (849-901).— Not many sovereigns deserve a place in literature because of their own writings. But Alfred was as great with the pen as with the sword. He ascended the throne at the age of twenty-three, and spent a considerable part of his subsequent life in conflict with the Danes, who in great numbers were making a descent upon the cultivated districts of England and France for the sake of pillage. When he came to the throne, the learning which a century before had furnished Europe with some of its most eminent scholars had fallen into decay. "To so low a depth has learning fallen among the English nation," he says, "that there have been very few on this side of the Humber who were able to understand the English of their service, or to turn an epistle out of Latin into English; and I know that there were not many beyond the Humber who could do it."

23. Literary Labors. With admirable tact and wisdom he set about remedying the evil. He studied Latin himself that he might provide his people with useful books; he invited learned scholars from the Continent to his court; and he established in the royal palace a school for the instruction of

noble youth. His efforts were grandly successful; and in less than a generation England was again blessed with intelligence and prosperity. Among the books he translated into AngloSaxon were Bede's "Ecclesiastical History"; Orosius's "Universal History," the leading textbook on that subject in the monastic schools for several centuries; and Boethius's "Consolations of Philosophy," a popular book among thoughtful people during the Middle Ages. These translations were not always literal. Alfred rather performed the work of editor, paraphrasing, omitting, adding, as best served his purpose. In the work of Boethius he frequently departed from the text to introduce reflections of his own. To him belongs the honor of having furnished England with its first body of literature in the native tongue.

FOR FURTHER READING AND STUDY.

The following subjects may be assigned students for parallel study, essays, or reading in class. Other subjects and sources may be indicated according to the judgment of the teacher and the library facilities at his command. A select bibliography will be found in the appendix.

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The Roman conquest of Britain, Tacitus, “Agricola" (Bohn), Macaulay, "History of England," ch. 1, and Green, History of the English People," ch. 1; The introduction of Christianity under Augustine, Bede, "Ecclesiastical History," chaps. 25, 26 (Bohn), and Macaulay and Green; The death of Cadmon, Bede, "Ecclesiastical History," ch. 24; Celtic literature, Morley, "English Writers," vol. I, ch. 3, and Matthew Arnold, 'Celtic Literature"; "The Voyage of Maeldune," based on an Irish legend about 700 A.D., Tennyson, "Poems"; The circumstances of Bede's death, Cuthbert's Letter in the preface of Bede's "Ecclesiastical History" (Bohn); Teutonic character and customs as illustrated in "Beowulf,” Earle, "The Deeds of Beowulf," a prose translation, and Hall, "Beowulf," a metrical, alliterative version; The qualities of Anglo-Saxon poetry as exemplified in "The Seafarer," "The

Wanderer," and "The Battle of Maldon," Cook and Tinker, "Select Translations from Old English Poetry," and Brooke, “Early EngNh Literature."

The Battle of Brunanburgh" is given in the selections of Part II.

MIDDLE ENGLISH OR FORMATIVE PERIOD.

PRINCIPAL WRITERS.

HISTORY." Anglo Saxon Chronicle" (concluded 1154). (See Text.)

METRICAL CHRONICLES.— Layamon (twelfth century), "Brut," or Chronicles of Britain.

Robert of Gloucester († 1300), "Rhyming Chronicles of Britain." Robert Manning († 1270), "Chronicles of England."

RELIGION.- John Wycliffe (1324-1384). Tracts, Sermons, Translation of the Bible. (See Text.)

Ormin (thirteenth century), "Ormulum." (See Text.)

Langland (fourteenth century), "Vision of Piers the Plowman." (See Text.)

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MISCELLANEOUS POETRY.-John Gower (1327-1408, Speculum Meditantis (French), "Vox Clamantis" (Latin), "Confessio Amantis (English), etc. (See Text.)

GREAT REPRESENTATIVE WRITER.

II.

MIDDLE ENGLISH OR FORMATIVE PERIOD.

(1066-1400.)

The designation Middle English or Formative Period is applied to the centuries lying between the Norman Conquest and the death of Chaucer. It is a period of great importance for English history and English literature. England passed under a succession of alien rulers, the state of society underwent a great change, and our language approached its modern form.

24. The Normans.— The name of Normans is given to the Scandinavians who, at the beginning of the tenth century, conquered a home in the northern part of France. They speedily adopted the language and customs of the subjugated country, and rapidly advanced in refinement and culture. By intermarriage with the native population, a vivacious Celtic element was introduced into the grave Teutonic disposition. Though of kindred blood with the Anglo-Saxons, the Normans, by their stay in France, developed a new, and in many respects admirable, type of character.

Along with their native Teutonic strength they acquired a versatile and imitative temper, which made them accessible to new ideas, and prepared them to be leaders in general progress. Losing their slow, phlegmatic temperament, they became impulsive and impatient of restraint. Their intellects acquired a nimble quality, quick in discernment and instantaneous in decision. Delicacy of feeling produced aversion to coarse pleasures. They delighted in a gay social life, with hunting, hawking, showy equipage, and brilliant festivities. Diplomacy in a measure supplanted daring frankness. Brilliant, superficiality took the place of grave thoughtfulness. Such were the