San Jose scale, of a lady-bird beetle which there keeps the scale in check is familiar to most of you. While the lady-bird thrived for a while in its new home, it became itself the object of attack from other predatory insects, and the absence of suitable scale food, due to the general spraying of orchards, where it had been introduced, led to its extinction, except perhaps in one or two localities in the South. At the present time large importations into Massachusetts from Europe are being made of enemies of the gypsy and brown tail moth, but the outcome of the work cannot yet be indicated. In a few instances insects have been found to be quite susceptible to bacterial or fungous diseases, and attempts have been made to propagate and disseminate these to secure their destruction. Notable instances are the use of the so-called "Muscardine" fungus years ago in the middle west against the chinch bug; the more recent use in Florida of the fungus Sphaerostilbe against the San Jose scale, and the work at the present time in the same state with the Aschersoriia diseases of the orange white fly.

Cultural Methods.-Numerous methods may be practiced for avoiding insect injuries by the farmer and fruit grower, which involve no outlay in time and labor not essential to proper crop culture, such as clean culture and fall plowing where practicable, the early destruction of crop remnants, the use of fertilizers to keep plants in vigorous and healthy condition, crop rotation, and in orchards prompt removal of diseased and dying limbs and trees, etc. Indeed in the case of staple crops, such operations are about all that may be done.

Winter wheat is largely protected from the fall swarm of the Hessian fly by delaying seeding in the fall until the insects have made their appearance, and died without ovipositing. Injury from the cotton boll weevil is best avoided by planting the crop as early in the spring as possible, and forcing a quick production, by chopping the plants out wide in the rows, the liberal use of fertilizers, and frequent cultivation. In this way, a profitable crop of cotton may be insured before the weevils are sufficiently abundant as to destroy the squares as fast as they are produced. The early picking of the crop and destruction of the plants in the fall and before the beetles go into hibernation destroys them in enormous numbers, as they feed only on cotton. The cultivation of vineyards in the spring as the shoots are pushing out, largely destroys the soft helpless pupae of the grape root worm then near the surface of the ground. Similarly the plum curculio may be reduced to an important extent by cultivation of orchards during a period of a month, beginning about six weeks after blooming. Liberal use of fertilizers will often enable plants to outgrow insect attack. This is well illustrated in the case of the black peach aphis; in Michigan, where the pest is quite troublesome, trees suffering from aphis attack are readily brought out by liberal use of stable manure. Many similar instances might be cited. In the use of cultural methods it should be borne in mind that the work must be done advisedly as in the case of spraying and with special reference to the particular insects to be controlled.

Resistant Varieties.-Entomologists have given but little attention to the selecting or breeding of varieties of plants, resistant or unpalatable to insects. A few examples may be cited as indicating possibilities along such lines of work. The solution of the grape phylloxera problem of France and California has come about by the use for grafting stock for the European grape of the roots of American vines. Numerous observers have commented on the relative freedom from the woolly apple aphis of apple trees grafted on roots of the Northern Spy, and certain other varieties. Doctor Webber found that one of his citrus creations, the Drake star orange, was resistant to the Phyptoptus rust of the orange. Orton has found that a variety of cow pea, the "Iron," is immune to attack from the so-called root knot, a nematode affection of the peach and many other plants, especially troublesome in the light sandy soils of the South. The comparative immunity from attack by the San Jose scale of Kieffer and Le Conte pears, the quince and sour cherry, is unique in view of the almost omniverous habits of this insect, and the determination of the reason might be of practical value. Certain strains of plums, especially the Americana group, are but little injured by the plum curculio, and varieties of apples vary considerably in regard to susceptibility to codling moth injury. This practically untrodden field should receive more attention from entomologists.

Mechanical Methods.-Only brief reference is required to what may be termed mechanical methods in fighting insects. Under this caption may be included such practices as worming for borers, jarring for the plum curculio, destroying insects by hand picking, etc. In general such methods are resorted to because no better plan is available. Some first-class pests at present must be treated in these ways, though future discoveries may afford more practicable treatment.

Legislation. The advent into the East of the San Jose scale was the primary cause of the adoption by many states of laws designed to prevent its distribution on nursery stock and secure its eradication or control where established in orchards. Numerous other insect and fungous pests were brought under the operation of the laws, and on the whole the legislation has been productive of great good. That it should uniformly secure the results desired was perhaps more than should be expected. A recent census of insect legislation in the United States shows that only eleven out of the forty-eight states and territories are yet without crop pest laws, and some of these will present bills for enactment shortly. Thirty different insect species are specified as noxious pests, and provision in many laws is made for the designation of other insects when deemed expedient. The San Jose scale is the only species mentioned common to all laws, which well illustrates the diversity of requirements of the various states. For some years, representatives of the National Nurserymen's Association and of the Official Horticultural Inspectors have endeavored to devise a more uniform system of certification of nursery stock for interstate shipments which is greatly to be desired. So far however, no arrangement has thus far apparently been effected. The establishment of a quarantine and inspec

tion system by the National Government of all plants brought in from abroad has been more or less agitated recently, and the wisdom of such action cannot be questioned. The State of California has maintained such quarantine for many years, and has no doubt kept out many undesirable insect immigrants.

In conclusion, the speaker would say, that while our battery for insect warfare may appear somewhat formidable, he believes that it will steadily improve in the future. Our present losses from insect attack must be greatly reduced and this will result from a more detailed knowledge of the insects themselves throughout their range of distribution, and a general adoption by those interested, of the recommenda tions which have proven to be of value.

VEGETABLE BREEDING.

W. VAN FLEET, LITTLE SILVER, N. J.

The breeding of vegetables doubtless began when primitive man ceased wholly to rely on the wild products of nature. The dawning intelligence that made the beginnings of plant culture would soon lead to discrimination in varieties and the perpetuation by various propagative means of the better rather than the inferior types of herbs, roots and seeds found desirable for his use. Thus in all probability was born selection—the most powerful of all forces in the modification of vegetable life by man. So potent and far reaching is selection consistently carried through successive generations, and so widely do modern cultivated forms differ from the original stocks, that the majority of vegetables of the present day cannot with reasonable certainty be traced back to their primitive species. The experiments of Vilmorin showed that an edible root similar to the Student parsnip of modern gardens could be evolved in less than five generations of critical selection from the common, semi-poisonous wild European parsnip, so we may imagine the profound influence of continuous selection, running back to far prehistoric ages, on the plants used as culinary vegetables. What family of plants first claimed the attention of primitive man we cannot with certainty know, but from the shadowy evidence of ancient remains it would appear that beans, peas and related legumes were among the earliest cultivated vegetables. Potent from the very outset, notwithstanding the desultory manner it may have been practiced, varietal selection yet remains the most certain and powerful method of moulding vegetable life to meet the needs or fancies of man. It is the truest form of breeding, the genuine pedigree work, by which we have slowly climbed toward the goal of vegetable perfection. Violent climatic changes, distant removals, intense fertilization and the little known forces of mutation or bud variation have all had their influences, but they are small indeed compared to that of continued selection. Modification by intentional hybridization or cross-pollination, though a powerful means of adding new characteristics, is of such re

cent practice, beginning in fact almost with the closing years of the last century, that it has made but limited impression on vegetable types. The present standard varieties are with few exceptions the outcome of selection alone. Hybridization, coupled with the all-necessary selection, is likely to have an increasing share in future vegetable breeding. Following is a brief résumé of the principal modern vegetables with reference to the general manner of their production.

Asparagus.-The cultivated varieties of asparagus all appear to have been developed by age-long selection from the common European species, A. officinalis. A few modern kinds are claimed to be crossbred, but whether intentionally so, we are not informed. Asparagus, being largely dioecious in blooming habit, is readily cross-fertilized when two or more varieties are grown in near vicinity. A Massachusetts society has undertaken breeding experiments with asparagus both on the lines of pure selection and well considered crossing, with the hope of producing varieties more resistant to rust than those now cultivated.

Beets.-Modern garden beets are admirable examples of critical selection for untold generations of culture. Certain varieties leave little to be desired in elegance of form, coloring or quality. The present effort appears to be toward uniformity of type rather than refinements of the above mentioned features. The use of beets for sugar production has, however, led to wonderful development of forms suitable for that important commercial purpose. The sugar content of the beet has been more than doubled in less than forty years of concentrated breeding work largely under government supervision. Selection of the best sugar-producing individuals for successive generations has been the all-powerful means, but cross-pollination is now beginning to play its part. One of the important objects sought by the breeders of our Department of Agriculture is the production of a reliable strain of one-germ beet seeds in order to lessen the expense of thinning the young plants. Everyone knows that ordinary beet "seeds" are merely coherent multiple fruits, usually containing several true seeds, which may germinate close together. The Department breeders employ both selection and crossing in the furtherance of their work.

Cabbage and related Brassicas are without doubt bred almost wholly by selection. Profound indeed have been the changes wrought in developing our hard-heading cabbages, our cauliflowers, Brussels sprouts, kales and even Kohl-rabis from the loose-tufted wild cabbage of Britain. Varieties cross with some freedom when planted near-by and useful variations may have arisen in that manner, but the tendency is carefully to segregate seed plantings so as to reduce natural crossing to the minimum. The writer has made crosses between green-leaved and highly glaucous cabbage varieties with the production of offspring having leaves of intermediate coloring, but retaining the heading characteristics of both parents in different individuals. Prolonged attempts to hybridize Chinese cabbage species, Brassica Petsai and B. Chinensis, with garden cabbages entirely failed. Apparently distinct species of cruciferous genera are not easy to cross. We have European reports

of successful crosses between the hairy leaved turnips and the rutabaga, but none appears to have risen to commercial importance.

Celery.-Appears wholly a product of evolution by selection. The present tendencies on one hand are to breed for early maturity and quick bleaching and on the other to seek in the deep-green leaved varieties good keeping quality and resistance to bacterial disease.

Cucumbers and Melons.-Intentional as well as natural crossing plays an important part in the development of these popular vine fruits. Most strains of forcing or glasshouse cucumbers are the results of crossing our white spine variety with the long smooth cucumbers so extensively grown abroad. In these dilute variety-hybrids the white spine type of fruit prevails, but the vigor of plant of the European kinds is retained. Glasshouse melons appear to an even greater extent to be the direct results of crossing. In most instances records of parentage are preserved, as being of commercial importance. Among outdoor varieties hand-made crosses are less in evidence, the seed grower practicing careful selection and isolation of varieties to maintain purity of type, but crossing is so readily affected by natural agencies that most distinct varieties probably originated in that manner, to be later perpetuated by selection.

Table Corns-Are cross-bred with comparative ease and certainty. Three years of selection will usually fix a desirable cross sufficiently for dissemination. Many successful crosses have been made for purely local uses. By far the greatest interest in corn breeding lies in the vast efforts being made by experiment stations, societies and individuals to increase productiveness and develop special characteristics in field corn varieties.

Lettuce.-Has hitherto been developed by selection and wonderful variations have been produced. The U. S. Department of Agriculture, however, announces that a successful cross has been made between the loose-leaved Grand Rapids type and a large heading variety, like Big Boston, probably the first intentional cross-breeding achieved in this important salad vegetable.

The Onion.-Is one of the most ancient and widely dispersed of aromatic vegetables. Various species of Allium are cultivated in different parts of the world and it would appear that fair opportunities for methodical hybridization exist. Attempts to intercross varieties of A. cepa, the garden onion, with A. Porrum, the leek, and A. fistulosum, the Welsh onion, in the hands of the writer completely failed. The crossing of Prizetaker, a large Mediterranean variety of garden onion, with Red Wethersfield resulted in attractive intermediate offspring that reproduced quite true from seed.

Peas and Beans.-Are constantly subject to the most careful selection, yet a considerable number of the most prized varieties, especially among peas, are products of intentional crossing. Beans are rather difficult subjects to artificially pollinate, yet successful hybrids between the Lima and garden pole bean, belonging to fairly diverse species, have been made by more than one breeder. Investigations show that these garden legumes, while popularly supposed to be self