upwards, with perfect leaders to each tree and comparatively small branches. Where pruning proves necessary, it is generally found that the soil is neither of the description nor in the condition necessary for the healthy growth of the species; and in all such cases the cause lies in the bad management of the planter in the first instance. Where the trees are planted in a soil in all respects favourable to their growth, pruning is never found necessary to any considerable

extent.

Trimming of Transplants.-Many foresters are in the habit of closely pruning all young hardwood trees, particularly Elms and

Oaks, when they are taken from the nursery and about to be planted in the open; but it is most injurious to the health of all young trees when newly lifted from the ground. The injudicious system often practised is to cut off all strong branches, and only leave a few small twigs near the top of the plant, with the view of drawing up the sap. The natural consequences are that, when the sap ascends in the plant in the spring, it is arrested at the wound where the first or lowest branch was taken off, and has a tendency either to "bleed," or to produce young shoots and leaves at this point; and this effort at recuperation is often carried so far as to result in the death of the top part of the plant.

The proper manner of treating the transplants, as they are lifted from the nursery preparatory to planting them out, is to shorten all the larger branches that have the appearance of gaining strength upon the top or leading-shoot of the young tree. This shortening of the larger branches ought to be done in such a manner as to leave only about one-half of their whole length remaining, with, if possible, a few small twigs upon each, in order the more readily to elaborate the sap as it rises in the spring. This trimming will in general give the young stems of sturdy transplants a pyramidal form of crown (as in Fig. 237), which exhibits a young Oak properly trimmed, from its original condition (as shown in Fig. 236). Where two leading-shoots contend for predominance (as in Fig. 236), the side-shoot should be pruned off. In this state the young trees may be planted with the greatest assurance of success. The great advantage of this method. of pruning young trees is that, when the sap rises in them during

the first summer after

planting, from there being a regular supply of small proportionable branches along the main stem, leaves are formed, and sap is drawn up regularly to every part of the tree; consequently the tree maintains an equal vigour throughout. Were all the branches left upon

Fig. 238.

Fig. 239.

the young trees, the roots, from the effects of removal, would not be able to supply the whole with due nourishment; and the consequence would very likely be that the plants would generally be much checked in their growth for the first season or two, and that some of them would either be killed outright, or would die down to the ground-level, from which part of the trees numerous young shoots would issue, much in the same manner as they do from the cut part of those trees which have been over-pruned.

Trimming may sometimes even be necessary whilst the transplants are being schooled in the nursery. Thus, when the leading-shoot gets damaged or weakly from any cause, it may sometimes be necessary to train up a side-shoot to take its place; and this is done by the removal of the leader, and tying up the side-shoot, as shown in Fig. 238. Again, where flexures or bends in the stem occur, they may be finally remedied by pruning in the manner shown in Fig. 239, which exhibits a young Oak under treatment.

For trimming the rootlets and lower twigs of seedlings being

Fig. 240.

Fig. 241.

Pruning or Trimming Shears.

transplanted into the nursery-beds, or of transplants lifted from these

for being put out into the open, the use of the pruning-shears is

to be recommended.

From the one blade of the instrument being concave and the other convex, the shears clasp the twig firmly at once; and by a very slight effort one is enabled to cut it through, although it may be somewhat strong. They may either be made with only short metal handles, or else with wooden handles of any convenient length.

Another very useful instrument made by the Standard Manufacturing Company, Derby, and belonging to the class of pruningshears, is the Myticuttah (see Fig. 242). The modus operandi is simply that the steel hook, within which the blade works, is placed over and holds the branch steady whilst it is being pruned. By pressing the levers steadily together a smooth even cut is obtained without having bruised the bark. It is specially convenient for trimming Holly and Thorn hedges, and other dense-growing trees, shrubs, and bushes of a prickly character, in the cutting of which, even if gloves are used, it is difficult to keep the hands and wrists from getting lacerated.

Fig. 243.

Pruning Implements. In the pruning of all young trees whose branches can be reached from the ground and are not more than 1 in. in diameter, the work ought to be done with the common forest pruning-knife (see Fig. 243). The pruning-knife is not made with a hinge between the blade and the handle, as is the case in common pocket-knives; but the blade is fixed into the handle. The blade is also made straight in the face, i.e., without any hook at the point, as is the case with garden-knives. When not in use, this knife is worn in a sheath of leather hanging at the side. In using the pruning-knife, the operator takes hold of the branch with his left hand a little forward from its base, so as to ease it upwards; and at the same moment he applies the pruning-knife with his right hand to the base of the branch to be cut off, cutting it upwards in the same line as the stem of the tree, and taking care to commence cutting about a quarter of an inch from the base of the branch. By this means the stem of the tree is not injured, and at the same time the rain is thrown off the wounded part. The wound should be made perfectly smooth, by being pared neatly all round with the knife, which should be kept very sharp. When the work of lopping off a branch is finished, the part will have the appearance represented in Fig. 244 at a; and in the course of two years after being removed, the wound-surface should be entirely cicatrised, or covered over with young wood.

Fig. 244.

When pruning operations are performed upon strong poles, or trees whose branches may be within the reach of a man standing upon the ground but are too large for being easily cut off by

the pruning-knife, the pruning-saw is used (Fig. 245). In this the movable blade gh can be adjusted to any given angle by means of a handle b, whilst the saw can be loosened and tightened as shown at a. In all cases of pruning off a branch with the saw, care must be taken, first of all, to make a slight cut with it upon the under part of the base of the branch to be taken off, say from to of an inch deep if the branch be 3 in. in diameter. This is in order to prevent the branch, when nearly cut through, from falling down, so as to tear away the bark below its base upon the stem, and thus open a wide door for the entrance of disease-producing fungoid spores. Care

should be also taken to pare and smooth with a sharp knife all the rough wound-surface, and to coat it over with tar or other waterproof antiseptic substance. By attending to this, damp will not be so apt to lodge upon the wound, nor will the risk of fungoid infection be so great, as otherwise must be the case.

Another very useful instrument is the pruning-chisel (see Fig. 246), the handle of which, d, may be of any convenient length to suit the height of the tree to be pruned, and should always be made of well-seasoned Ash-wood. In using this instrument, the

Fig. 246.

d

operator takes hold of the pole with his left hand, and puts the sharp face of the instrument, a, to the under part of the base of the branch. He then with a mallet in his right hand gives one or more strokes upon the lower end of the handle, c, which has an iron ferrule or ring upon it; this forces the instrument through the branch, and thus separates it from the stem of the tree. In doing this, care should be taken to repeat the strokes lightly when the branch is nearly cut through; because, were a heavy stroke of the mallet given at this time, the instrument might be forced upwards, so as to injure the stem of the tree by making a deep cut. When it is necessary to take off any