"The main remedy lies in placing around the stem (either about 15-18 ft. above the ground or else at breast-height) a girdle, composed of a viscous, gluey, or tarry substance, retaining its stickiness and odour until after the caterpillars have done feeding. The great practical utility of this

Caterpillars, after having spun themselves down from the crown, are unable to reascend the stem owing to the tarry rings.

method rests on the characteristic of the young caterpillars spinning themselves down to the ground on gossamer threads during the period before the second change of skin, after which their fully-developed destructive

Fig. 340.

powers come into play. The re-ascent of the stems being prevented by the rings of patent tar, whose odour they loathe, the caterpillars die of hunger. This method was first employed in 1889 in a small 15 to 20 year old Spruce plantation, which was trimmed of its lower branches and ringed with the patent tar; and as this was found to be successful, similar treatment was also accorded to other localities. In 1890 it found adoption on a much larger scale, and again more extensively in 1891; whilst in 1892 its application has been extended throughout the whole of the tracts that have been -infested on a gigantic scale-the stem of every tree, pole, or thicketgrowth of the thickness of a forefinger and upwards being ringed, whilst younger plantations have been isolated. The outlay thus incurred in 1892 in the State forests alone has amounted to £75,000 in Bavaria. As practically every caterpillar descends at least once to the ground, and as the majority reach the soil in place of being caught on lower growth, especially in old crops, the results have been that millions of caterpillars perished in 1891 and 1892 under the tarrings, whilst those that tried to come down the stem before entering the pupal stage also found their way barred, and fell into a sickly state, besides easily falling a prey to the thousands of birds that were naturally attracted to such feedinggrounds, to parasitic insects, and to fungoid disease (see Figs. 337-340, and the descriptions appended).

"The higher up the stem the girdle is placed,

Diseased Caterpillars (1891) swarming on the top shoots of Spruce-trees.

the more effectual it is, but also the more expensive, and in practice it cannot be put higher than 15-18 ft., somewhat thin patent tar being then

used, and the ring being formed by means of a long-handled brush fed from a reservoir above it. The extra expense of high rings is only recommendable when it is certain that a high percentage of the ova are situated on the lower portion of the stem.

"Whether rings of patent tar or glue at breast-height will or will not be sufficient to save the crop, depends principally on the species of tree, for, with its sparse foliage and less density of crown, Scots Pine is much easier to deal with than Spruce. Timely adoption of this measure can certainly minimise the evil; but when once the caterpillars swarm in enormous numbers, it can only be effective if aided by natural enemies of the insect, and by fungoid disease breaking out among the caterpillars owing to the sickly state engendered by hindrance of their usual daily progress up and down the stem towards the end of June or the beginning of July. Thousands of wooden nesting-boxes have now been hung throughout the coniferous forests in Bavaria to protect the increase of starlings (Figs. 333-336).

"At Ebersberg (1892) the average cost of forming the rings of patent tar has amounted to about 8s. per acre; the cost of the patent tar was 7s. per cwt. at the factory, and 13s. in the forest; whilst the labour of ringing the stems was 7s. per cwt. About 40 lbs. were used per acre on the whole average, so that the mean outlay per acre was 5s. 3d. for patent tar and 2s. 9d. for labour.

Fig. 341.

Spud and Smoothing stick (about 1-6th real size).

"Before the operation of applying the patent tar is proceeded with, a thinning out should take place in winter, when all suppressed stems and undergrowth should be cleared away. After that the boles must be cleaned wherever the ring is to be put, so that the semi-viscous patent tar may get a firm hold on the bark. For roughbarked trees like Oak and Pine, this cleaning should be about a span broad, but for smoother-barked species like Spruce, Silver Fir, and Beech, it is sufficient merely to free the part from moss and any scaly bark attaching.

"The composition of the patent tar or glue is treated as a sort of secret, but it must be an open one, as some fifteen or sixteen firms supply it at about the same price, 7s. to 7s. 6d. per cwt. at the factory. It consists mainly of wood-tar, resin, wood-vinegar, various oily ingredients, and probably black soap, and must possess the property of not congealing with late frosts, of remaining semi-viscous for over three months, and of not running with heat. It should float on water; if it does not, this proves that mineral ashes have been mixed with it, thereby diminishing its efficacy.

"The ring should be put on thick, but need not be broad, as the caterpillars dislike either the smell or the touch of it so much as to make no attempt to cross over; hence a breadth of to 1 in. and a thickness of toin. is amply sufficient. Owing to its semi-viscosity, the patent tar cannot be put on with brushes, but is affixed by means of special appliances, for it must bite close on to the bark so as not to peel or flake off in places.

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Apparatus of various sorts have been invented for putting it on, all of them being more or less like syringes in principle, but the simplest and best method, especially when the ring is formed at breast-height, is to apply the tar with a small narrow wooden spade about to in. broad, and to smooth it off with another slightly broader wooden instrument to the required breadth and thickness (see Fig. 341). The formation of the rings must be

undertaken early enough in April to be entirely completed by the time the larvæ issue from the ova.

"Observations on living trees and examination of dead stems have shown that no harm is done to the trees by the using of patent tar, and that it does not penetrate into the cambium to interfere with the normal performance of the functions of the latter, although it partially penetrates and softens the bark immediately below the ring."

Injuries Caused by Game.-It is a noteworthy feature in the rural economy of Great Britain that, speaking generally, more attention has been given to game-preserving than to economical forestry. This is true even of parts of the country which might be said to be specially well suited for planting. That such a thing should have happened is not at all surprising. From certain points of view it is no doubt regrettable, yet it is but the natural result of the growing demand for sport which has followed the increase of wealth amongst the middle classes in this country. Exorbitant rents have been readily paid for shootings of all kinds, good, bad, and indifferent, so that landowners have been tempted to give a good deal of attention to the rearing of game, with the result that in many cases forestry has had, as it were, to play second fiddle. No one can fairly blame landowners for taking advantage of the great demand for sport; by doing so they have in many instances derived a much higher rental from their property than could possibly have been obtained by any other means. Yet it is undeniable that game-preserving as pursued on a large number of estates is strongly antagonistic to profitable forestry. From hares and rabbits alone the loss must be very considerable, as on the greater number of extensive landed properties large sums are annually expended in the replanting of enclosures which have had their crops less or more injured, and sometimes almost totally destroyed. Startling facts could be given. on this point; but reference will not be made to the cases of any particular estates, as that would necessarily imply remarks of a more or less personal nature with regard to the landowners. In many cases landed proprietors look upon their enclosed plantations as just so many game-covers; and in reality they are preserves, as on most estates the game can lie quiet for breeding purposes. On many estates, not even the forester himself is allowed to carry out the needful operations of thinning for fear of disturbing the game; yet if only the matter were properly understood, it would be found. that there is no necessity for any such extreme disregard for the interests of the plantations.

In this work it is the sylvicultural aspect of the question that is the chief concern. In this view extreme game-preserving is much to be condemned. The forester is perhaps ordered to plant an enclosure

of about fifty acres. He thinks, as he proceeds with the work, that although there is a considerable quantity of game in the older enclosures, he has seldom seen much on the part he is about to plant. He encloses it, therefore, and no sooner is this done, than from its quietness it becomes the resort of hares and rabbits, although this may not have been the case previously while the land was pastured and in the hands of a farmer. It is enclosed, however, and he must plant it. The planting takes place; and not many months afterwards he finds the stems of the young Oak or Maples stripped of their bark and the tops of the Larch, or Spruce, or Pine all eaten off. And this goes on day after day, more especially in the winter-time, while the forester looks on helplessly; for although he may complain, his lamentations are not much attended to, because the gamekeeper protests that there are few hares, if any, in the enclosure, well knowing that he is expected to have a good stock for the coming shooting season. If ground game were kept more in check than at present in many cases, planting operations would not cost nearly so much as they now generally do, and their results would be vastly more satisfactory.

This matter was distinctly pointed to by Sir Herbert Maxwell, Bart., in his paper on Woodlands, where he says (Nineteenth Century, July 1891, p. 33) that

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"One chief hindrance to our woodlands being remunerative may be stated at once-we are arboriculturists and sportsmen, not foresters. large proportion of the land returned as woodland is really pleasure-ground and game-cover. Thousands of landowners follow on a smaller scale the example set by the State on a larger in the New Forest and Windsor Forest."

This was a matter also distinctly brought before the notice of the Parliamentary Committee on Forestry in 1887, both with regard to England and to Scotland.

Thus, in the evidence of Mr Elliot, Professor of Estate Management at Cirencester College, the following passages occur with special reference to the conditions obtaining throughout Central and Southern England :

"505. In other words, are we not as a nation very deficient in technical education as regards forestry?—Yes, I should say so, in comparison with other nations. There is one great drawback in connection with Forestry in this country, and that is the association of woods and covers with gamepreserves; all agents will tell you that is a detriment to the full development

of woods.

"506. Do you mean that the large covers which are now kept for foxes and pheasants might be kept for profitable Forestry ?-If there were no question of game-preserving, more might be made of the woods.

"524. You stated, I think, that our woodlands are rather sacrificed to game in this country?—I rather said that the production in a commercial point of view is probably lessened sometimes by considering the advantages of sport rather than the growth of timber and underwood.