Forest Department, no restrictions of any kind existed, was, as may be supposed, a matter of the greatest difficulty. Boundaries were defined where no boundaries previously existed, or at least boundaries which had never formed a restriction had, under the Forest Law, to be respected. Previously, anybody might go into the forest, cut down in a most valuable portion all young trees over any extent of forest he wished, kill the mature ones and make a bonfire of the whole, sow in the ashes, reap a crop, and similarly destroy another area next year. A man wanting covering leaves for cigarettes might cut down a tree without let or hindrance; a cattle owner requiring more extensive pastures might fire and re-fire the forest, till it became sufficiently open to yield a dense grass-crop; cattle and even goats might graze and browse in the midst of forest reproduction. All this had to be stopped.

Protection. As regards general protection, the laws, being new, had to be worked leniently. This has been done, and the progress reported from time to time is satisfactory. Where forests suffer, especially under excessive grazing, they do so more from rights granted and privileges permitted during the time of settlement than from subsequent breaches of forest rules. The greatest benefits conferred lies in the stopping of the above described method of cultivation, locally known as kumri, jhum or taungya, in the Government forests of almost all provinces. This step affords, in the Central Provinces alone, protection to at least 5000 square miles, which otherwise would have been rendered bare once in every fifteen to twenty years. In the protection of forests from fire there is still much to be learned and done, and in almost every province it is necessary to depend more on fire-tracing and fire-watching than on the help given by legislation. The law, while sufficiently stringent for reserved, and even for protected forests, is quite inadequate to protect them from fires spreading into them from adjacent private forests and grazing lands, and from open forests belonging to the Government, though the Burma Government has recently shown that most valuable results may be attained by insisting that the conditions of the law in regard to prairie fires shall be respected outside the forest areas. In all these classes of areas, fires intentionally lighted still often occur, and spread wherever the wind may carry them. This, apart from the mere protection of the Government forests, is probably one of the most important questions connected with forestry, and consequently with agriculture in India. These annual fires are the main reason of the barren condition of most of the Indian hill ranges, and are closely connected with distress and famine. Many prejudices will have to be overcome in order to check this evil, and it will take the full power of Government to do so.

In the meantime practical steps have been taken to prevent the spread of external fires into the more valuable Government forests. During 1891–92, 24,000 square miles were thus protected from fire, at a total cost of Rs. 242,000, and the following table gives a résumé of the work done :

Results of Fire-Protection in the Forest Circles Administered by the

By fire-protection, the regulation of grazing, and the general protection of the forests, ample reproduction is ensured, as a rule, after a shorter or longer period, in the more valuable forests of India, though, in some of the drier regions, areas thoroughly desolated and with unfavourable soil will resist improvement for the time being.

Management.-Most Indian forests are of a mixed character, containing only one or a few valuable species which repay the cost of working. Moreover, all age-classes are generally represented on the same area, and this necessitates working by the selection system (Ger. Plänterung or Fehmelbetrieb, Fr. Jardinage). It is self-evident that these facts make the problem of forestry-to secure a continuous yield proportionate to the stock on the ground without causing the deterioration of the forestsextremely difficult. In previous times the work was carried on haphazard, or based sometimes only on an exceedingly rough valuation of the growing stock. As a rule, however, the demand and requirements for forest-produce were the only considerations by which the exploitation was governed, and no attention was paid to the potential capabilities of the forests. Of late, however, more pretentious working-plans have been made, and several provinces have organised a division or staff for this work only. The working-plans made in the provinces under the Government of India are scrutinised and audited by the Inspector-General of Forests before they are passed by the Local Governments. The working-plans take special notice of all measures necessary to encourage, and, what is infinitely more difficult in a mixed forest, to guide natural tree reproduction; and they prescribe any artificial means-such as girdling of inferior trees, dibbling in of seed, &c.— that are required to assist natural regeneration of the species or admixture desired. The forests controlled by the Department are, however, by far too extensive, and markets at high rate are not at present sufficiently general

1 These figures are for 1890-91.

and secure to permit of the extensive use of the more elaborate methods of European sylviculture. In special connection with the preparation of working plans, the Forest Survey Branch of the Imperial Survey Department has been formed.

The exploitation of timber, at least of the more valuable timber, from Government forests, is carried out partly through the direct agency of the Department and partly by contractors. Of minor forest-produce, the most important at present are grass, myrabolams or hirda fruit (Terminalia Chebula), bamboos, cutch or catechu, cardamoms, caoutchouc or india-rubber, and lac; but there are many others of less value.

The estimated yield in timber and fuel in cubic feet of all Government forests was as follows during 1891-92:

The following table exhibits information in respect of the sea-borne exports of forest-produce from India to foreign countries in 1891-92:

Arrangements have recently been made for the dissemination of information on these and other important Indian forest-products among the

commercial community and other persons in Europe interested in the trade. Monographs on the more important products appear from time to time in the pages of the Indian Forester, and are subsequently republished in the series of penny handbooks issued by the Imperial Institute in London.

Financial Results.—The financial results of Forest Administration in India have been as follows:

VI. The Forests of Africa.-Africa is a division of the earth of which we know very little, excepting those portions of it which lie along the seaboard; and therefore we are not prepared to speak with regard to the extent of its forests. From observations made by that famous traveller Dr Livingstone, in the account of his travels in South Africa, we were first made aware that vast forests do exist in some parts. He says that in some places near the Cape there are mountains which are clothed with evergreen succulent trees, on which neither fire nor drought has any effect, and that the seaboard gorges are clad with gigantic timber. In another part of his work he speaks of seeing grand specimens of the "Baobab," or Monkey-Bread-tree, and of the "Mopane" tree. One of the Baobab-trees he saw measured 85 ft. in circumference at 3 ft. from the ground. The Baobab-trees seem to be wonderful examples of vitality. When the natives strip them of their bark for domestic purposes, they do not die, as would be the case with most other trees, but live and throw out a new bark by a process of granulation. It is said that this stripping of the bark is done frequently, and that no external injury, not even a fire, can destroy the tree. Dr Livingstone says that in several cases he saw trees of this kind cut down, and that even after they were separated from the stump, they continued to grow in length.

In Middle Africa the Oil-palm, the Arachis or Earth-nut, Gum Acacias, Cotton-trees, and the Shea-butter-tree, grow in abundance; whilst in the north the Orange and the Olive are to be found, with the Date and other Palms.

From the geographical nature of Africa, comprehending as it

does both tropical and temperate climes, there must be many different species of trees indigenous to it, especially in the central parts, of which we know nothing at present. Up to the present time, the number of species introduced from Africa is comparatively few. But when the continent has been thoroughly explored and opened up to science, we may hope to have many additions to our arboreta from its forests.

VII. The Forests of South Africa.-South Africa has a soil and climate excellently adapted to the growth of trees from foreign countries; hence there are now many of the trees of Australia, especially the Eucalyptus and Acacia, growing as well as if they were in their native habitats.

The surface of the country is very varied, and consists of a series of plateaux, rising in successive terraces from south to north, but separated by mountain chains; a few of the summits of the mountains rise to heights varying up to 9000 feet. These circumstances give rise to a great variety of soil and climate, suitable to the healthy development of trees from many foreign countries.

Southern Africa is, generally speaking, not well wooded, although the soil is for the greater part well adapted to the growth of trees of every sort. Still, there are here and there native forests stretching

over large tracts of country.

A considerable extent of land has now been planted; and the success of these crops is ample evidence of the suitability of the country for raising timber of valuable dimensions. The kinds planted are chiefly Oak, Poplar, Cluster Pine, and Stone Pine, with Ash, Elm, and Sycamore, all of which have made rapid progress. The Indian Cedar, the Mahogany, and Banyan trees thrive well also.

The general dryness of the climate of this part of Africa renders it highly necessary that planting should be undertaken largely. Were this done, the climate would in due time be much improved.

"Though belonging almost entirely to the equatorial and tropical zones, Africa is divided by its desert regions into well-marked botanical provinces. That of the north, Morocco, Algeria, and Tunis, belongs essentially to the Mediterranean region, Cedrus atlantica and Abies numidica on Mount Atlas recalling similar associations on the Himalayas, on Lebanon, and in Cyprus. The Sahara is the region of the date-palm; the Soudan, that of the oil and sago palms, the baobab, and the silk-cotton; and this jungleregion is again separated by the desert region of succulent Euphorbia Alor, Crassula, and Mesembryanthemum from the region of Heaths and Proteace in the south.

"Morocco. Though olives, grapes, figs, almonds, dates, chestnuts, walnuts, mulberries, and cork are cultivated, the most interesting species. in Morocco are the "'arâr' and the 'argan.' The ''arâr' (Callitris quadri