porous, and friable, and somewhat above the average in general quality. There the young trees will become bushy and hardy, and will also throw out numerous fibrous roots, which are always favourable to the establishment and healthy growth of young trees on their being transplanted permanently.

The preceding remarks have reference only to such establishments as are suitable for comparatively small and moderately-sized properties. On more extensive estates, say such as those on which there are from 6000 to 15,000 acres under wood, and on which there may be from 100 to 250 acres of land to plant annually, the case is altogether different. On Lord Seafield's Strathspey property, for example, there are upwards of 1,000,000 of young trees planted out yearly. There is a home-nursery of some 12 acres in extent on the estate, in which are raised by far the greater part of the young plants required. In this nursery a regular staff of nursery hands is kept, who attend to the cultivation of the young trees of the various sorts for the various stages and heights wanted. By this means the assurance is gained that every plant used is naturalised to the climate before it is planted out, which is a great matter in tree-culture; and besides, in this large nursery the proprietor is enabled to have his trees raised at a comparatively cheap rate. This, of course, arises from the extent being sufficient to support an establishment of special hands for the purpose, which could not be the case where operations are only requisite on a comparatively small scale.

Management of the Nursery. In the above, the establishment of temporary nurseries has been recommended in connection. with the woodlands on comparatively small, as well as on somewhat extensive landed properties, say on those ranging from 4000 to 15,000 acres in extent, on which the wooded tracts may perhaps extend to from 400 to 1500 acres respectively; for on such properties planting is not generally performed regularly, but only from time to time, on too small a scale to recoup the expense of keeping up a regular and permanent nursery establishment. But, on the other hand, it was recommended that on extensive hill and moorland properties, say on such as might range in extent from 30,000 to 50,000 acres, and on which it might be contemplated to plant about 400 to 500 acres annually for a series of years, regular or permanent nurseries should be established, both in order to facilitate the planting operations generally, and to have the supply of plants at the cheapest possible rate; for practical experience has shown that a regular nursery establishment is highly advantageous on extensive properties, where it is contemplated to plant on a large scale for a series of years. In the following, therefore, such a scheme of nursery culture will be sketched as may be found suitable and advantageous for planting

VOL. II.

G

operations on large properties, say on such as those on which it is purposed to plant 400 acres annually for a period of fifteen or twenty years.

As the establishment of such a nursery is necessarily attended with considerable expense at the outset, the whole plan should be carefully considered and re-considered by the forester before he begins to put it into execution. If this be not attended to, considerable disappointment may often ensue.

The first point to be considered is the part of the property on which the permanent nursery should be situated; and this, of course, should be as near to the centre of the intended planting operations as possible. If, however, after fixing upon a certain locality for the site, it should be found that the land is of a heavy clayey nature, such a site should not be retained; on this class of land young plants, and more especially those of coniferous species, can hardly be expected to develop such stout fibrous roots as are necessary in order to ensure entire success in the establishment of the plantations. In choosing the situation, therefore, let it for preference be on a light loamy soil, even although it should lie a mile or more from the centre of the intended operations; for the advantages to be gained by the better development of the plants in such a soil will far outweigh any disadvantages with regard to transport in conveying the young trees to their permanent homes.

When an apparently suitable locality has been chosen, the next point is to see whether the situation is satisfactory in other respects -whether it be not too much exposed to cutting winds in spring or to late frosts, too much surrounded by wet and undrained lands, or too much sheltered by trees. All these points should be taken into consideration. If the site be too much exposed to cold and cutting winds in spring, the young plants would suffer such a check as to impair their health and vigour; if much surrounded by wet and undrained lands, frosts would be induced towards the end of spring and in the early part of summer, and consequently the young shoots of plants of early growth would be injured; if too much sheltered by trees, the young plants would become drawn up and of a weakly habit, and, when put out into the plantation-ground, would suffer such a check as to prevent their establishment and progress for a considerable time; if lying to the east, the effects of the morning sun in April on the plants after a night's frost would be injurious; whilst if having an aspect to the north, the soil would be cold and inactive, and the period of vegetation would be late in commencing, less energetic while it lasted, and early in terminating. In choosing the site, therefore, let the soil be rather light than otherwise; let it be neither too much exposed nor too much sheltered; let it be in rather a dry

and well-cultivated part of the estate; and let it have a southern or south-western exposure if possible, or at any rate nearer to the south and west points than to the north and east.

The author's recommendations in this matter are at direct variance with the results of practical experience in Germany, which are summarised in the following extract : 1—

"For nurseries and seed-beds, care should especially be taken to select sites neither exposed to insolation nor to the action of drying-up winds; seeking the shady side of older crops and avoiding, so far as possible, localities exposed towards the south or west, are much to be recommended."

But it must, of course, be borne in mind that the Continental climate is much drier, or much less humid, than our insular climate; and what would be best suited for the N.W. of Scotland, might be the very worst exposure for the dry east coast of England.

When this matter has also been satisfactorily arranged, the next step is to ascertain what extent of ground will be necessary for the raising of the number of young trees that may be required. By way of example it may be supposed that the estate on which the nursery is to be established is in a part of the country suitable for rearing Oak and other hard-wooded trees on the lower portions having better soil; that it be found desirable or necessary to rear a large proportion of Pine and Larch, both as nurses for the hardwoods and for making Pine and Larch plantations, without hardwoods, on the higher parts having somewhat poorer soil; and that planting operations are to be carried on to the extent of about 400 acres annually, the species required being hardwoods of various kinds, with a large proportion of Pine and Larch both for nurses and for making purely coniferous plantations on the hilly parts of the estate. In order to ascertain the extent of ground required for the nursery, the proportion of the different species of plants that will be wanted must be calculated. In order to have a basis for calculation, it may be supposed that 200 acres are to be planted annually on the lower parts of the property with hardwoods, and with Larch as nurses; and that other 200 acres are to be planted annually on the higher portions, with an intermixture of Larch and Pine.

From this it would follow that in order to plant 200 acres annually with hardwoods, say at 12 ft. apart, about 61,000 of these would require to be produced annually, besides 484,000 Larch as nurses; and that to plant annually 200 acres of the higher grounds with Larch and Pine, say in equal proportions, and at 4 ft. apart, nearly 300,000 of each of these sorts would have to be produced to meet the annual demand.

1

1 See editor's translation of Kauschinger-Fürst's Protection of Woodlands, 1893, p. 18.

The total number of plants requisite would therefore be :

Hardwoods
Larch
Pine.

61,000

784,000

300,000

1,145,000

These 61,000 Oaks and other hardwooded species, which are supposed to be required yearly, will occupy a space of nursery-ground equal to about three-quarters of an acre; the 784,000 Larch plants will occupy another space equal to 5 acres; while the 300,000 Pines also required each year will occupy another space equal to 1 acres,thus making a total extent of nursery-ground equal to 7 acres 1 rood, which will be cleared of its crop each year successively, in order to plant 400 acres of the woodlands annually. As the Oak plants, forming the great bulk of the hardwoods, should stand for three years in the nursery-lines before they are sufficiently strong to plant out into their permanent sites, these will require to be of the respective ages of 1, 2, and 3 years; hence three regular and successive crops of hardwoods will be required, each occupying three-quarters of an acre, so that 2 acres 1 rood of the nursery-ground will be constantly occupied by the hardwoods alone.

Again, the Larch plants must stand two years in the nursery-lines before they are fit for planting out; and since, as has been stated above, about 5 acres of the nursery will be required to produce the annual number required of that species, there will, of course, be twice that number of acres necessary to maintain a regular succession of crop. Hence about 10 acres of the nursery-ground must be set apart for Larch alone.

The Pine plants must also be reckoned as standing two years in the nursery-lines before being planted out, although this is only by way of example, for yearling seedlings or 2-year-old transplants that have stood one year in the nursery are often practically better than older schooled plants for land where simple notching can be performed safely. It was said above that 1 acres of the nursery will be required to furnish the annual number of Pine needed, and as the plants are to stand two years in the lines, twice that extent of ground will be necessary to keep up the regular supply; hence 3 acres of the nursery-ground must be kept under Pine. The total requisite extent of nursery-ground must therefore be about 15 acres 1 rood. Besides this area, which must be kept constantly under a crop of seedlings and transplants of the various successive ages required, there will also have to be a portion equal to three-quarters of an acre regularly put under green crop each year preparatory to transplanting Oak-seedlings upon it in the following year; and another portion,

equal to 5 acres, may also require to undergo similar preparation each year for the planting of Larch upon it; while a third portion of 1 acres may require to be similarly dealt with as a preparation for the planting of Pine upon it the year following. In addition to these specified quantities, 1 acre would have to be allowed for the sowing of Acorns, and Larch and Pine seeds; nearly half an acre for manure and compost heaps; nearly 1 acre as borders, for layering and engrafting various species of trees; and 1 acre would have to be allowed for roads, walks, &c. The whole extent of nursery-ground required for the cultivation of supplies of transplants sufficient to form 400 acres of plantation annually will therefore amount to the following:

Area under 1, 2, and 3 years' transplanted Oak and other Hardwoods

1 and 2 years' transplanted Larch

"

1 and 2 years' transplanted Pine .

Allowance for sowing seeds as described.

borders for layering out, engrafting, &c., &c.

Total extent of nursery required

25 3 0

This may seem a large extent of nursery-ground for the rearing of 1,145,000 plants annually, and it is indeed large in proportion to that on which public nurserymen would rear the same quantity of trees; for in public nurseries the young plants are sometimes very crowded, whilst proper attention is not always paid to the rotation described. And in the present instance the object is rather to explain to foresters how a nursery should be managed in order to rear a sound and healthy stock of plants than to show how it may be carried on so as to have the plånting material at the cheapest possible rate; as there is no doubt that the more healthily young plants can be reared, the cheaper is the operation of planting in the end, and the more satisfactory are its results. It is perhaps not generally known that when plants are crowded in the nursery-lines so as to take up the least possible space, and to produce the largest possible number on any given area, they are badly rooted, and many of them die when put out. Besides this evil with regard to nursery culture, it may be invariably observed that in nurseries where no attention is paid to green-cropping the land regularly previous to schooling young trees upon it, the transplants become unhealthy and stunted, and are therefore predisposed towards disease both in the nursery-beds1 and when 1 A list of the fungoid diseases to which plants are liable in the nursery will be found in chapter xii.