society had displayed great skill and discernment in its selection. In fact, the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg elected four of these men before their talents were discovered by any other foreign society on this list, and two of them before they were elected by the home. society. If one society was always the last to elect we should suspect that it awaited the judgment of others, in which case its choice would have little value as an independent opinion. It might, however, be due to other causes, as, for instance, a higher standard, if its total membership was less. A society which elected many members who were never elected into any other would appear to show poor judgment, although other conditions might enter in particular cases. Thus, every member must, for a time belong to one society only. The failure to detect marked differences by these tests confirms the view that the selections are made independently and fairly. An examination of Table II. reveals some interesting cases. One member was elected into the six foreign societies in five years, while with another this period extended over thirty years. One was elected into all seven societies before he was fifty years old. One has been elected into the six foreign societies for eight years, and has not yet. been elected into the home society. One was elected into three foreign societies before he was forty. Three persons have been elected into a foreign society after attaining the age of eighty, and ten before they were forty. About two thirds were elected into foreign societies between the ages of forty-five and sixty-five. On the average, these men were elected into their first foreign society about eight years after election into the home society. The successive elections then took place at average intervals of three years and a half. The oldest member is ninety-one, the youngest forty-six. Many other conclusions regarding age might be drawn, such as its relation to country, science or society, but no striking differences have been noticed. The most important conclusions to be drawn by inhabitants of the United States, are that the representation per million inhabitants is less than a fifth that of the principal countries of Europe. We have no representative in mathematics or medicine, while in astronomy we have three out of ten members. The explanation is not hard to find. While immense sums are spent on higher education in this country, the endowment for advanced research is comparatively small. Astronomy is almost the only science having institutions devoted to research, and in which a large part of the time and energy is not expended in teaching. Of the six American members, five have occupied positions in which no teaching was required, but their entire time was supposed to be devoted to original investigation. THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE DOCTORATES CONFERRED BY For the past eleven years there has been published in Science each summer an article on the degrees of doctor of philosophy and doctor of science awarded by American universities. It appears from these statistics that during this period 42 institutions have given this highest academic degree to 3,093 students. The number in each consecutive year is represented graphically by the height of the column in the accompanying figure. It thus appears that, with fluctuations from year to year, there has been a decided increase in the number of those officially designated as competent to teach and carry forward research work. The annual number first exceeded 250 in 1901 and 300 in 1905. After remaining stationary for about three years, it is this year 378. The middle lines in the columns represent by their distance above the base line the number of 300 250 200 150 100 501 0 DOCTORATES CONFERRED BY AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES degrees in the natural and exact sciences, the balance of the space to the top of the column representing the number in the so-called humanities, including under this term history and It thus appears that political science. nearly but not quite half the degrees are given in the sciences and that there is a slight tendency for the sciences to gain on the humanities. Three fourths of the 3,093 degrees have been conferred by seven universities as follows: Chicago, 410; Harvard, 380; Columbia, 377; Yale, 350; Johns Hopkins, 333; Pennsylvania, 257; Cornell, 203. The universities of the Atlantic seaboard, with Chicago, thus hold the position that Germany had twenty years ago. As Americans then frequented the German universities for advanced work, so now they tend to go to these seven universities which are private corporations, though perhaps Cornell and Pennsylvania are on the way to become state institutions. The great state universities of the central and western states will probably witness a large development of their graduate schools in the course of the next ten years, and the south will follow the same course in the following decade. Wisconsin gave 17 degrees this year and 19 last, more than double the average for the preceding ten years. Illinois, which this year received the first special appropriation made to a state university for graduate work, conferred five degrees, as many as had been conferred in the preceding ten years. Michigan, Minnesota and California have, however, remained nearly stationary. About twice as many degrees are conferred in chemistry as in any other science. The numbers have been: chemistry, 374; physics, 177; zoology, 172; psychology, 157; mathematics, 144; botany, 137. There is then a drop to geology with 76, physiology with 48 and astronomy with 35. University work in chemistry is often a professional course for the chemical analyst or engineer and is thus not altogether parallel with the other sciences. It would be well if similar conditions obtained in engineering and the medical sciences, so that there would be larger numbers from which those competent to undertake research work might be selected. The universities differ in the relative emphasis placed on the sciences and the humanities. Thus at Cornell and the Johns Hopkins nearly sixty per cent. of the degrees are in the sciences, whereas at Harvard, Yale, Columbia and Pennsylvania the percentage is about forty. At Chicago the percent age is 49, at New York University it is only nine, and at Boston University only two. It is commonly supposed that the state universities are mainly occupied with the utilitarian sciences, and it is interesting to note that at Wisconsin, Michigan and Minnesota, respectively, 77, 60 and 70 per cent. of the degrees are in the humanities. The three or four hundred young men added each year to those engaged in the advancement of science and learning are probably the most important factor in our civilization. Not more than half of them will accomplish anything after their doctor's theses, but the others may perhaps have their places filled by those who enter research work otherwise than by the ordinary academic routine. When we remember, however, that about 5,000 physicians and lawyers are graduated each year, the number taking the doctorate of philosophy seems to be small -not in proportion to the population and wealth of the country. There are some 25,000 professors and teachers in our colleges and universities and some 35,000 in the secondary schools; then there are increasing numbers of positions in the government service and elsewhere. The supply of men of the right kind does not equal the demand, and one of the most serious problems that confronts us is to find methods to increase the numbers and improve the quality of those engaged in scientific research. AERIAL NAVIGATION THE center of interest-dramatic, practical and scientific-at present is in the demonstrations of aerial navigation now being made in France and here, especially by Mr. Wilbur Wright at Le Mans and by Mr. Orville Wright at Fort Myer. But the changes are so rapid-at the time of this writing Mr. Orville Wright has broken the record four times in four consecutive days-that only the daily newspapers can follow them. A scientific journal, however, should not go to press without an expression of admiration for the work of those who have so successfully applied scientific principles to the solution of practical problems, and it is not chauvinistic to betray satisfaction in the fact that the United States, in the scientific and applied work of Langley, Chanute and Bell and now in the practical success of the Wright brothers, has led the way. It may be that flying-machines will only be used in war and in sport, but history has shown time after time that it is not safe to set limits to what science can accomplish. It almost seems to be a longer step from Langley's first experiments to what the Wright brothers have now done, than from this to complete mastery of aerial navigation. It would of course be impossible to accomplish this otherwise than through gradual progress in many directions. What is most needed at present is an engine of increased efficiency for its weight. Should this be devised, the problem would be much simplified. The dangers of aerial navigation are more obvious than real. It is now safer to go down to the sea in ships than to ride along a road on a horse. There is plenty of room in the air, and it may be found in the end that this advantage will more than counterbalance the chances of failing to the earth. However these things may be or whatever may happen or not happen, there is every reason to congratulate Messrs Orville and Wilbur Wright on their great achievement and on the careful scientific research which preceded it and on which it rests. This is true in spite of the catastrophe that has occurred since these words were put in type. It appears that government officials are responsible for requiring the premature delivery of an aeroplane that would carry two persons. To an outsider it would seem that ballast should have been tried, and that protective clothing should have been worn. THE PHOTOGRAPHY OF AQUATIC ANIMALS IN THEIR NATURAL ENVIRONMENT Ar the seaside laboratory of Roscoff, in 1893 and subsequently, Dr. L. Boutan made the first submarine photographs by means of a submerged camera. He was not successful with a camera immersed directly in sea water, owing to the lack of a suitable lens, but got clear and good photographs with cameras enclosed in water-tight boxes, both with sunlight and in deeper water with the use of the magnesium flash- water is shallow, and good results can light and electric arc lamps. Since be secured when ways are found by that time excellent aquatic photographs in aquaria have been made by Dr. R. W. Schufeldt, Mr. A. R. Dugmore and others, but the photography of fishes and other subaquatic life has by no means reached the degree of perfection that has recently been obtained which the light reflected from the surface of the water is cut off and a smooth surface is obtained. In deep water, however, and for many purposes it is necessary to use a submerged camera. Professor Reighard describes the apparatus he used at the Eminent as physiologist, botanist and poet, the two hundredth anniversary of whose birth will be celebrated by the University of Bern on October 15. in photographing birds and wild mam- | Tortugas, and examples of the photomals in their natural habitats. graphs taken are here reproduced. According to Professor Reighard's description, in the upper picture a butterfly-fish (Chaetodon capistratus) with a stripe through the eye and an eye-like spot on the tail is seen over a flat expanse of coral (Meandrina) and at the base of a large, branching Professor Jacob Reighard, in a recent bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries, has taken up the subject and describes methods of subaquatic photography, both when the camera is outside the water and when it is submerged. The former method must be used when the |