The assassination of Cæsar was a political blunder. The fabric of the republic had long been tottering to its fall, and Cæsar was the one man who could have built upon the old foundation a solid and stable government. His death involved the state in fresh struggles and civil wars for many years, until in the end it fell under the supremacy of Augustus, who established a monarchy far more despotic than that which the so-called "liberators" had attempted to avert.

"His talents for war were, perhaps, the highest the world has ever witnessed; his intellectual powers were almost equally distinguished in the closet, the Forum, and the field: his virtues, the very opposite to those of Cato, have been not less justly celebrated equally capable of commanding men and of courting them, of yielding to events and of moulding them, he maintained his course firmly and fearlessly, without a single false step till he attained the topmost summit of human power.'

Marcus Brutus and Cassius fled to their provinces-Macedonia and Syria—and Decius Brutus to Cisalpine Gaul, leaving Antony master of the situation.

Cæsar's grand-nephew and heir, Octavius, being then but eighteen years old, at once sailed from Apollonia to Italy. He arrived at Rome in May, 43 B. C., and assumed the name of Caius Julius Cæsar Octavius.

In June he was at open enmity with Antony. Cicero had become a strong supporter of Octavius and delivered his immortal Philippics against Antony, making at the same time almost superhuman efforts to revive the republican spirit in Rome. At first it seemed as though he would be successful. The armies of Brutus in Macedonia and Cassius in Syria were gaining victories, and Antony was beaten by Octavius in Northern Italy. But these successes were only temporary. "The tie created by the dead Cæsar was stronger than the tie created by dying Rome."'*

* Horton. (See note, p. 59.)

In October, Octavius, Lepidus, and Antony held a conference at Bononia, modern Bologna, Italy, on an islet in the river Rhenus (Reno), and agreed to divide the empire amongst themselves. Octavius took Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica; Antony, Cisalpine Gaul, the Northern and central parts of Transalpine Gaul; Lepidus, Spain and Southern Gaul.

Their first care was to rid themselves of troublesome opponents. "The associates, thus prepared for the work of slaughter, sate with a list of the noblest citizens before them, and each in turn wrote the name of him whom he destined to perish. Each claimed to be ridded of his personal enemies, and to save his own friends. But when they found their wishes clash, they resorted without compunction to mutual concessions."'* Octavius surrendered Cicero to Antony's hatred; Antony in return surrendered his uncle, Lucius Cæsar; and Lepidus abandoned to the malice of his colleagues his own brother, Paulus Æmilius. The list of the proscribed gradually swelled to three hundred senators and two thousand knights.

Cicero's name is said to have stood first on the bloody list. He was assassinated on December 7, 43 B. C.

"The acts of horror and inhuman cruelty perpetrated at that time by the brutal murderers, who were actuated by revenge, avarice, and malice, surpass even the horrors committed in France during the Revolution in the days of Robespierre, Danton and Marat.''t

Brutus and Cassius were in Asia engaged in the plunder of Rhodes and Xanthus when Antony pushed his forces through Macedonia into Thrace. On their arrival at Philippi they found the passes barred against them. They occupied two hills facing the city of Philippi to the southeast, their left flank resting on the sea. Brutus was on the right and Cassius on the left, their

* Merivale. (See note, p. 59.) † Schmidt's History of Rome. (See note, p. 47.) For Robespierre, Danton, and Marat see History of French Revolution.

double camp being connected by a long line of rampart.. Their fleet, which should have been at hand, was in the Western seas. The armies engaged on either side exceeded in numbers those engaged in any previous battle-the Republican army numbering 120,000 legionaries, that of the triumvirs, 80,000. To maintain such a force in the field, Brutus and Cassius had been obliged to exhaust the supplies of the different places through which they passed. Cassius wished to retreat upon Asia, Brutus insisted on giving battle.

The first engagement took place very much as Shakespeare has described it, except that Octavius was not present, being kept away by illness, or, as some say, by cowardice. Brutus was victorious over the army of Octavius; he stormed the enemy's camp and cut three legions to pieces. Cassius was beaten by Antony, and, thinking the battle lost and the cause desperate, committed suicide. The first battle was followed by an interval of twenty days, during which the Republican legions, demoralized by the death of Cassius and disorganized by the slackness of Brutus' discipline, gave themselves up to plunder or deserted to the enemy.

Finally, Brutus was forced to renew the battle. This engagement took place on the same ground as did the other. For a time the contest was undecisive and stubborn. After hours of mutual slaughter the forces of Brutus were put to flight. With four legions he gained a position of security among the hills behind his camp. When, on the following day, he wished to renew the battle, his soldiers sullenly refused to fight. Brutus saw that no hope was left, and to avoid indignity worse than death he slew himself, after exclaiming, "We must fly, indeed, but it must be with our hands, not with our feet."-Plutarch.*

The battle of Philippi was the death-blow of the republic. The battle of Actium which was to follow, 31 B. C., was the crisis

*See note, p. 26.

of the personal rivalry of Octavius and Antony. The fate of the Roman world was then decided at once and for ever. From that date Cæsar reigned supreme in the person of Octavius Julius Cæsar Augustus.

XVI. ROMAN TITLES

Imperator. The title "imperator" belonged, in the republican period, to the victorious general. Cæsar was the first to retain the title after the termination of his generalship.

Pontifex. The College of Pontifices or priests dated from the time of the kings. At the head of the College was the "Pontifex Maximus," who held the supreme authority in things sacred. Cæsar, as Pontifex Maximus, instituted a new order of "Luperci" called "Juliani," of which he made Antony chief priest.

Augur. The gods of the Romans had their own way of speaking, which was intelligible to the initiated only. The College of Augurs, sixteen in Cæsar's time, was a kind of priesthood especially skilled in interpreting the language of the gods from the flight of birds, from the inspection of the entrails of slaughtered beasts, and by other mysterious methods.

Prætor. The prætors were judicial magistrates for civil or private suits. They were elected annually. Cæsar raised the number from eight to sixteen, and the nomination of half of them was in the hands of the imperator in the same way as was the nomination of half the quæstors. Brutus, in 44 B. C., was one of the prætors nominated by Cæsar.

Tribune. The tribunes were plebeian magistrates, elected annually by the plebeian assembly. They possessed the right of veto on a magisterial edict, and their "plebiscita" or laws were binding on all citizens. Among their prerogatives was that of calling the other magistrates to order. Flavius and Marullus were tribunes.

Act I, Scene i. The curtain rises upon a busy scene of popular enthusiasm. Roman tradesmen and mechanics are making holiday, and thronging the streets of Rome to see Cæsar, and rejoice in his triumph over the sons of his old rival, Pompey. The tribunes, Flavius and Marullus, are indignant that Cæsar should triumph over men who were Romans like themselves, and they drive the Commoners from the streets. Taking advantage of the display of popular enthusiasm, Mark Antony three times offers Cæsar a kingly crown, which he each time refuses. In the meantime Cassius is busy assembling the conspirators to perfect their plans for the assassination.

Act I, Scene ii. Cæsar first appears at the head of the procession celebrating the festival of the Lupercalia. (See note I. i. 77, page 164.) A soothsayer bids him "beware the ides. of March." As the procession passes along, Brutus and Cassius remain behind, and Cassius with great skill poisons the mind of Brutus against the dictator. When Cæsar with his train passes again, Casca remains to relate to Brutus and Cassius how Antony had thrice offered a crown to Cæsar, which he had reluctantly refused. Cassius, alone, congratulates himself on the result of his interview with Brutus.

Act I, Scene iii. On a night made terrible by thunder and lightning, Casca meets Cicero in the street, and relates the strange sights he has seen. As Cicero hastens away to seek shelter, Cassius appears, and, working upon the already agitated mind of the superstitious Casca, easily induces him to join in the conspiracy against Cæsar. Cinna enters, and the three conspirators take measures to win over Brutus to their party.

Act II, Scene i. Brutus, alone in his orchard, laments over Cæsar's ambition and monarchial tendencies. He decides that Cæsar must be killed that Rome may be saved from the