Artists, Philosophers, Poets, Orators, Divines, Philanthropists; -mentioning what is known respecting their country, parentage, education, character, principles, exploits, influence on society for good or evil, death. 638. The following list of themes is selected from Parker's Exercises in Composition. 1. On Attention, 2. "Adversity, 3. "Ardor of mind, 4. 5. "Attachment, Art, 6. 66 7 Anger, 8. 53. 54. 51. On Ocean, 55. Principle, "Greatness, true, 56. "Perseverance, 57. "Patriotism, 58, "Politeness, "Providence, 60. 11. Bad Scholar, 36. "Humility, 61. "Punctuality, "Charity, 37. Hypocrisy, 62. "Piety, 13. "Clemency, 38. "History, 63. "Religion, "Hope, 64. Reading, 15. "Conscience, 40. "Indolence, 65. "Sincerity, 16. "Constancy, 41. "Industry, 66. "Summer, 17. "Carelessness, 42. "Ingratitude, 67. "Spring, 18. "Curiosity, 43. "Justice, 68. "Sun, 19. "Cheerfulness, 44. "Learning, 69. "System, "Love of Fame, 70. "Truth, "Music, 71. "Time, 22. "Duplicity. 47. "Moon, 72. Talent, 23. "Early rising, 48. "Novelty, 73. "Vanity, 24. "Envy. 49 25. "Friendship, 50. "Night, 74. Virtue, 76. Knowledge is Power, 79. Government of the Tongue, 83. The Power of Association, 88. Life is Short. 89. Miseries of Idleness, 90. Never too old to learn, 75. Wealth. 91. Public Opinion, 92. Diligence ensures success, 96. Visit to an Almshouse. 101. Virtue the way to Happiness, 106. "An honest man's the noblest work of God." 110. How blessings brighten. as they take their flight. 111. Advantages derived from the invention of the mariner's compass-of the telescope-the steam engire-the art of printing-of gunpowder. 112. History of a needle-a cent-a Bible-a beaver hat. 113. Description of a voyage to England-Coast of Africa-Constantinople South America-East Indies-China. APPENDIX. I. GRAMMAR. The object of Grammar, in a general sense, is to investigate the principles of language, and from a careful analysis of these, to lay down a system of rules and principles, by observing which, we may be enabled to express our thoughts in a particular language in a correct and proper manner. Such a collection of rules and principles applicable to the English language, with directions for their use in the most simple, brief, and convenient manner, has been attempted in the preceding pages. When we speak of Grammar as a system of rules, it is not to be understood that the rules are first established, and the language afterwards modelled in conformity to these. The very reverse is the fact: language is antecedent to grammar. "No grammarian can of his own authority alter the phraseology of any expression, or assign to a word a signification different from that which has been allotted to it by established usage. He must take the language as it is, not as he would wish it to be. He may, indeed, recommend this or that mode of expression, as more agreeable to analogy, but it must remain with the public whether or not his advice be adopted. From the decision of general, reputable, and established usage, there lies no appeal. His business is to observe the agreement or disagreement of words, the similarity or dissimilarity between different forms of expression; to reduce those that are similar, under the same class, and, by a careful induction of particulars, establish general propositions. Nor is it absolutely necessary that he should know by what means this or that phraseology came into use, or why this or that word forms an exception to a general rule; it is sufficient for his purpose if he does know that it is an exception, and, knowing it, points it out to others. “By arranging the various rules and principles of a language into a systematic form, permanency is given to what would otherwise be subject to fluctuation, or involved in obscurity; the relative connection and importance of the rules become clearly ascertained, and the whole is rendered more easy of being acquired and retained, and applied with facility and correctness. "Prior to the publication of Lowth's excellent little grammar, the grammatical study of our own language formed no part of the ordinary method of instruction, and consequently the writings of the best authors were frequently inaccurate. Subsequent to that period, however, attention has been paid to this important subject; and the change that has taken place both in our written and oral language, has evidenced the decided advantages resulting from such a plan. "The Grammar which has attained the greatest celebrity for general use, is that by Mr. Murray. In this work, he has embodied the principles and rules which were deduced by the most celebrated grammarians that preceded him; and by arranging the whole in a better order, has rendered it decidedly superior to every work of the kind which existed before its appearance." Hiley's Preface. Since that time, many works have been published of various degrees of merit, most of which have had for their object, not so much to investigate more thoroughly the principles of language, as to simplify and elucidate principles already investigated. The Etymology and Syntax of Dr. Crombie, lately published, though not intended for the use of schools, is a most valuable addition to the stock of original works on this subject. "The industry of research, and acuteness of discrimination, which he has evinced in the collection and comparison of different forms of speech, have thrown great light upon many difficulties; and his conclusions must, in general, serve as landmarks to the future traveller." Among recent valuable contributions to our stock of literature on this subject, may be noticed the work of Mr. Harrison, on "The rise, progress, and present structure of the English language," published in England in 1848, and republished here in 1850; and the large work of William C. Fowler, late Professor of Rhetoric in Amherst College, entitled " The English language in its Elements and Forms." Some works of an eccentric character have also at times appeared, whose authors, smitten with a passion for novelty or singularity, have manifested much more capacity for pulling down, than for building up-for finding fault with that which is good already, than for producing something better in its place. Still the labors of even these are not without their use. Like the violence of the tempest which shakes the sturdy oak, and causes it to strike its roots deeper and firmer in the parent soil, they only more firmly establish that which can not be overthrown. The principles of language, which grammar as a science investigates, are general and permanent. They belong to all languages, and remain the same, however they may be classed, or in whatever terms they may be expressed. Hence it is that the grammars of all languages are substantially the same, and differ only in minor details, as idiom and usage require. This is as it should be. No good reason can be given for making a grammar of the English language, for example, toto cœlo, different from the grammars of other languages, ancient or modern. And yet it has been, and still is, the practice of some to declaim against the existing systems of English Grammar, because, as they say, they are conformed to the grammars of the dead languages, or to those of foreign nations. Though such efforts may prevail for a season, and with a few, more mature reflection usually dissipates the delusion. It is well known that novices in every science are constantly making discoveries; and these appear to them for a time so important and wonderful, that they sometimes think they cannot fail to astonish the world, revolutionize the science, and immortalize themselves. It happens, too, that such discoveries are usually in proportion to the want of discrimination and intelligence of those who make them. A more extended acquaintance with facts and principles will often prove, even to themselves, that their great discoveries are only the crude and exploded fancies of other men, and other days, long since abandoned as untenable and worthless. Discoveries of such a character are sometimes made in grammar also; and such, too, is often their origin and their end. The system of English grammar, as we now have it in the best works, or in what some are pleased to call the "Old Grammars," rests on a more solid foundation. Men of sound, discriminating, and philosophical minds-men prepared for the work by long study, patient investigation, and extensive acquirements, have labored for ages to improve and perfect it; and nothing is hazarded in asserting, that should it be unwisely abandoned, it will be long before another, equal in beauty, stability, and usefulness, be produced in its stead. II. CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. LANGUAGE, written or spoken, consists of words. In combining these into propositions and sentences, so as to express our ideas in a correct and intelligent manner, an accurate knowledge of their forms, changes, and functions, is necessary, and this again can be attained only by a proper classification of them according to their distinguishing characteristics and uses in the communication of thought. The importance of this has always been felt by grammarians, and various classifications have been made, differing from each other according to the principles assumed as their basis. The essentials of speech were anciently supposed to be sufficiently designated by the Noun and the Verb, to which was subsequently added, the Conjunction. In modern times, the parts of speech have been denominated Substantives, Attributives, Definitives, and Connectives. Such a classification, however, is too general to be of much use in grammar. To group together under one head, words specifically different in their character and use, can tend only to confusion; and to multiply divisions which can serve no practical purpose, is an extreme equally unprofitable. By a careful analysis of language, we find that some words are employed to express the names of things, others to indicate their qualities; some express action or state under various modifications; others are used in connection with these to point out circumstances of time, place, manner, order, degree, etc.; some are employed to denote certain relations of things to each other, and others again chiefly to connect the different parts of a sentence together. This diversity in the use of words is as real, and as distinctly marked as the functions of the bones, muscles, arteries 196 and nerves of the human system, and forms a basis of classification equally proper in all languages. On this principle of classification, the later Greek grammarians divided words into eight classes or parts of speech, viz. the Noun, Article, Pronoun, Verb, Participle, Adverb, Preposition, and Conjunction. The Romans had no article, but retained the same number by distinguishing between adverbs and interjections. Both included under the term noun, the names of things, and words expressive of their qualities; the former they called Substantive Nouns; the latter, Adjective Nouns. These were subsequently ranked as two distinct classes, commonly called Nouns or Substantives, and Adjectives; and the participle was restored to the verb, to which it properly belongs. This classification, with little variation, has been adopted by the best English grammarians, and remains in general use even at this day; and though not absolutely perfect, or incapable of improvement, still it is sufficient for all practical purposes, and is perhaps, on the whole, the best that has yet been proposed. Objections to it merely on the ground that it agrees with the generally received classification of ancient, or foreign languages, are just about as reasonable as objections to the anatomical classifications of ancient or foreign nations would be, merely because they happen to differ in stature, complexion, or features, from ourselves. Such objections have been, and still continue to be made, the futility of which needs no better illustration than the fact, that, after all, their authors have offered little else in its stead, than the same, or nearly the same divisions under different names. III. THE NOUN OR SUBSTANTIVE. The characteristic of this class of words, is that they are names. Every word that is the name of any thing that exists, whether material or immaterial, or of any thing that is or can be made the subject of thought or discourse, is a noun. that letters, marks, or characters, and words used independently Hence it follows, of their meaning, and merely as things spoken of, are nouns; thus, A is a vowel; honor is sometimes spelled with a u, and sometimes without it; th has two sounds; us is a pronoun; I will have no ifs or buts; is the sign of addition. Hence, also, the infinitive mood, a participle, a member of a sentence, or a proposition, forming together the subject of a discourse, or the object of a verb or preposition, and being the name of an act or circumstance, are in construction regarded as nouns, and are usually called "substantive phrases;" as, "To play is pleasant," "His being an expert dancer is no recommendation," nesty is the best policy.'" "Let your motto be 'Ho The ACCIDENTS of the noun, in English, are, in general, the same as in other languages, i. e. they have Person, Gender, Number, and Case; though in the details of these, there is some diversity in different languages, and even in different grammars of the same language. |