or decorated in any manner; and manufactures in chief value of such ware not specially provided for in this section, 50 per centum ad valorem; if painted, colored, tinted, stained, enameled, gilded, printed, or ornamented or decorated in any manner and manufactures in chief value of such ware not specially provided for in this section, 55 per centum ad valorem.

DESCRIPTION.

Included in this survey are portable lamps, ceiling and wall fixtures, street-lighting equipment, and marine fixtures. Portable lamps vary widely in material and workmanship. They consist of a standard, which may be of metal, wood, marble, porcelain, or other material and a shade, which may be of glass, porcelain, silk, paper, or metal. They range from the simplest and cheapest construction to highly artistic productions of superior design and workmanship. A ceiling or wall fixture may be a simple socket with a plain metal reflector, or it may be a large and highly ornamental chandelier carrying hundreds of lights, for installation in a large public building. Marine fixtures similarly may be of the simplest construction, without attempt at ornamentation, or they may be of elaborate design. Street fixtures are usually of more rugged and simple construction, generally of iron, with glass shade or globe, and are often of artistic and pleasing design.

DOMESTIC PRODUCTION.

In 1914 the production of gas and electric fixtures amounted to approximately $30,000,000, of which about $20,000,000 was electric fixtures. In 1919 electric flxtures were valued at $32,902,266. These amounts do not include the value of the glassware, which is not reported separately. In 1918 the value of lighting glassware produced in the United States was estimated by the War Industries Board at not less than $10,000,000.

Materials. Interior fixtures are largely of brass, copper, or soft white metal. In the more expensive class of fixtures bronze is used, and in some types iron is employed. Outside fixtures are usually of cast iron. For the shades a variety of materials are used, including silk, glass, porcelain, parchment paper, wicker, and others. The materials are chiefly of domestic origin.

Equipment. The equipment is varied, as would be expected from the variety of designs and materials. Foundries and stamping presses are used for the metal parts, and the usual equipment is used for the glass and porcelain portions.

Methods of production.-Parts for the lighter and less expensive fixtures are usually stamped or spun from sheet metal. Where a more substantial appearance is desired castings may be used for the lower grades; white metal composed of zinc and lead, painted with a metallic paint; for the higher grades, brass or bronze. Hand labor is not extensively employed, except in the more costly grades. Skilled chasers are employed for finishing the castings of certain types of high-grade fixtures, but these types are made in limited numbers. Pattern makers and molders are required for all cast parts, but the bulk of the labor is not highly skilled. In general the product, from its nature, is not highly standardized, as demand is for unique designs. In office and the lower-priced residence fixtures there is considerable standardization, but even in these, new designs are always being

sought. One of the larger makers has recently adopted a policy of putting out a reduced number of designs, in order to concentrate on quantity production of a few standard types and to permit lower costs. The manufacture of the glassware is a separate industry from that of the manufacture of the metallic parts and belongs rather with the glass industry. The shades are either cast or blown in molds, depending on the shape of the product. The glass beads, prisms, and other shapes used in making up the so-called crystal fixtures are made almost entirely by hand. Much of this work is done by hand in the homes of foreign peasants, and is not adapted to American production methods.

Organization. There are perhaps 35 principal firms making lighting fixtures. The industry does not require highly developed machinery or other equipment, nor does it call for the engineering skill required in many of the branches of the electrical industry. It is therefore carried on with few exceptions by relatively small concerns. There are two main branches of the industry, that of glass making and that of metal working. The metal working firms as a rule specialize in one grade of fixture, one group of concerns making the low-priced product, another the medium grade, and another group the highest, or what might be called the art class. There does not appear to be any strong tendency to combination. Lighting glassware similarly is made by a number of firms of moderate size. A specialty in glassware is the two-color glass having a white lining for reflection and an outside layer of green, red, or other color. The manufacture of this ware is a specialty carried on by two firms in the United States, and by several foreign makers, and presents some difficulties. The capital invested in the lighting fixture industry was estimated by the War Industries Board in 1918 at $11,500,000.

Geographical distribution.-In 1914 the States reporting the largest production of fixtures were New York, New Jersey, Illinois, and Ohio. Connecticut is also an important producer. Producers of glassware are mainly located in Pennsylvania and New Jersey.

History of the industry.-The industry is an old one, having developed from the manufacture of fittings and shades for oil lamps. Later gas fixtures were added, and more recently, about 1885, electric fixtures, which now constitute the greater part of the business. Domestic production and consumption. The production of gas and electric fixtures reported by the Census of 1914 was $32,123,892, of which $19,873,833 was electric fixtures and $12,250,059 gas fixtures. In 1919 the production of electric fixtures was $32,092,266, and of gas fixtures about $9,500,000. There is no limitation on the domestic production of the metallic parts of fixtures, or on the bulk of the glassware. Glass beads and other small shapes for assembly into crystal fixtures are not manufactured in this country, owing to the high cost of hand labor, and certain types of shades of foreign make are considered by many to be superior to the domestic.

Domestic exports.-No statistics of exports are available. There appears to be some export to South America and other countries, where competition from Germany is met. Instances are cited by manufacturers of the sale of a simple type of incandescent gas burner of German make in quantity in Great Britain at prices lower than the American makers' cost.

1 Files of War Industries Board.

FOREIGN PRODUCTION.

Electrical fixtures are made extensively in Great Britain, Germany, France, and other European countries. Styles of foreign fixtures are somewhat different from those used in the United States, though not sufficiently so to bar competition. In the case of glass and porcelain ware there are no material differences. Czechoslovakia produces in quantity electric lighting glassware of high quality; in some cases it is perhaps superior to that of domestic make, especially the two-color ware, consisting of glass having two layers fused together, and also the small glass beads for crystal fixtures. High-grade bronze fixtures are made by the French. Fixtures are also made to some extent by other countries.

IMPORTS.

Imports of lighting fixtures are not separately given. There does not appear to have been in the past any considerable import of metallic parts of fixtures, nor is there at present any volume of such imports. Glassware, on the other hand, was, before the war, imported rather largely, principally from Czechoslovakia. It is of good quality, in some cases preferred to that of domestic manufacture. The imported crystal beads and other small shapes strung together to form shades are of a kind not produced in America.

Statistics of imports were not reported prior to 1918. In 1921 imports of globes and shades from all countries amounted to only $43,953.

PRICES.

It is difficult to make comparisons of prices, either foreign or or domestic, owing to differences in design, especially in the case of metal fixtures. Data submitted by importers indicate that prices of glassware in Czechoslovakia and Germany are considerably lower than those prevailing in the United States for similar articles.

TARIFF HISTORY.

The class of glassware including lighting goods was, in 1894, dutiable at 40 per cent ad valorem; under the acts of 1897 and 1909 the rate was 60 per cent; and in 1913 the rate was 45 per cent.

Metallic parts of fixtures, or fixtures in chief value of metal, are included as manufactures of metal not otherwise provided for. Under the act of 1894 they were dutiable at 35 per cent ad valorem; in 1897 and 1909 at 45 per cent; in 1913 the rate was reduced to 20 per cent, or 50 per cent if plated with gold or silver.

These two classifications include the greater part of the electric and gas lighting fixtures. For fixtures in chief value of other materials, reference may be made to surveys on such materials.

COMPETITIVE CONDITIONS.

There has been little foreign competition in gas or electric fixtures, with the exception of the glassware. Styles of foreign fixtures are somewhat different from those preferred by domestic consumers, and American makers have probably been more progressive in originating new and more attractive and useful designs. Makers of the highest grade fixtures report that with the exception of a few French antique

designs they have in the past met with no competition from foreign sources, and that they anticipate none. Fixtures of this class are largely designed to order.

Although makers of the cheaper grades are not aware of any importation of fixtures in the past, they express the fear that owing to the lesser individuality of the designs and the advantage of the lower wage rates prevailing in Europe foreign makers may enter the market in the future.

In the case of glassware competition was rather more active before The domestic manufacture of certain kinds of glassware in which European producers excel has been improved during the war, and imports of shades and globes amounted to only $43,953 in the year 1921. Data submitted by glassware manufacturers indicate that rates of labor employed on mold and offhand blown glass shades and bowls increased from 1914 to January, 1921, by amounts ranging from 90 to 125 per cent, and the prices of the principal materials increased in the same period from two and one-half to three and onehalf times. In July, 1921, material prices have receded somewhat.

In the case of sand, which in January, 1921, sold at 2.4 times the pre-war price, the ratio had in April receded to 2.1. Manufacturers' prices of a widely used type of green cone shade were in the pre-war period $2.75, and during the high-price period reached a peak of $11.50. This shade sold in April, 1921, for $9. These prices are increases of 4.2 and 3.2 times, respectively, over the pre-war figures.

TARIFF CONSIDERATIONS.

Lighting fixtures are at present classified as to material of chief value. In the case of fixtures made up of ornamental metal castings or stampings, combined with glassware, and possibly including porcelain and other materials, the determination of the material of chief value by customs appraisers is often a difficult matter.

A provision including all electric lighting fixtures or portable electric lamps and similar articles or parts, except incandescent electric lamps, would greatly simplify the classification of such material. The term electric incandescent lamp is ordinarily understood to mean the glass bulb and filament complete, ready to insert in the socket, while lamps composed of a standard, socket, and shade holder, with or without a shade, are termed portable electric lamps. The term fixture denotes a unit for attachment to ceiling, wall, or other surface, and includes a metal or other support with a socket to receive the lamps, and usually shade holders. Fixtures may or may not include the wiring and the shades.

ELECTRIC BATTERIES.

SUMMARY.

Batteries are of two classes, primary and secondary.

Primary batteries are for generating small amounts of electric current for such uses as operating bells, telephones, and ignition apparatus for engines. The dry battery, the form commonly used, is a zinc can containing carbon and chemicals in paste form for gener

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ating the current. The wet primary battery is an open jar containing the chemicals in solution, and is relatively little used.

The secondary or storage battery is a wet battery which is charged by passing a current through it, and when exhausted by the drawing of current, can be restored to its original charged condition by repeating the charging; it thus acts as would an actual reservoir of electricity. It is widely used for starting and ignition for automobiles, for the motive power for trucks and submarine boats, for railroad car lighting, signaling, and as reserve for power systems. Storage batteries can be commercially built in capacities much larger than primary batteries.

In 1919 production of storage batteries and parts amounted to $60,036,000, and that of primary batteries to $32,427,000. Of the latter amount, $25,320,000 represented dry batteries, $3,509,000 liquid batteries, and $3,598,000 parts and supplies. The production of storage batteries is increasing rapidly owing to their use for automobiles.

For dry batteries, zinc, carbon, manganese dioxide, ammonium chloride, paper, and some other materials of less importance are required. Lead storage batteries are built from lead and the oxides of lead, with glass, fiber or lead lined tanks, and sulphuric acid for the electrolyte. In the nickel storage battery, iron, nickel, and nickel hydroxide replace the lead, and potassium hydroxide replaces the sulphuric acid. Manganese dioxide is imported, though domestic sources are being developed, and nickel is mined in Canada; otherwise the materials are of domestic origin.

Dry batteries are made by machine by quantity production methods. Storage batteries are produced largely by special machinery.

The greater part of the output of both dry and storage batteries is from a few large companies, although both are made successfully by a number of small firms.

Statistics of exports do not distinguish between primary and secondary batteries. Combined exports have increased by nearly ten times since 1914, amounting in 1920 to $6,633,542. In 1921, however, they dropped to $3,831,738. Canada is the largest market, but exports are widely distributed.

Statistics of imports are not available, but importation of dry batteries is known to be very small. Prior to the war there was considerable importation of lead storage battery plates from Germany, and it is possible that this trade may be revived.

Dry batteries are produced in Germany, Great Britain, Japan, and Sweden. The quality of these foreign batteries is good, with the exception of some of the Japanese batteries. The type of construction in use in Europe is said to be somewhat superior to that employed in the United States. Germany is a large producer of storage batteries, and there are several British makes.

The United States is the largest market for batteries, and the American dry battery manufacturer employs a method of construction which is more economical with respect to labor than that used in Europe. These factors tend to reduce costs, and it is known that American selling prices are lower than those prevailing in Great Britain. At present there is practically no competition in the domestic market from foreign dry batteries.

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