pean States had little trade by sea, and, indeed, the commerce of the world was chiefly carried on by land. Genoa and Venice are among the most thriving commercial States of this period, and these had some colonial settlements.

But it was not till the fifteenth century, that colonies were established on an extensive scale. The Portuguese were the first to extend their discoveries, and at that period they founded colonies along the Atlantic borders of Africa, and even in India. The discovery of America soon followed, and then a system of colonizing those portions of the new world which belonged to each European power, by virtue of discovery, was adopted.

Thus, the whole continent of America, North and South, became parcelled out among the different European nations, the settlements all being colonies: that is to say, they were all considered as belonging to European countries; and while each claimed protection from its particular government, it submitted also to the laws prescribed by that government.

This was the situation of the thirteen English colonies, described in chap. XLVI. These had all been settled within the territory claimed by Great Britain, as being discovered under her flag. They had all claimed the protection of Great Britain, which was called the mother country; and they had all submitted to the government of Great Britain. These colonies were considered of so much importance to that kingdom, that they were spoken of as "the brightest jewel in her crown."

It must be remarked, however, that the colonists generally settled in America, under charters granted by the king, or obtained some charter at a sub

sequent period. These charters prescribed the mutual rights of the colonists and the crown: usually extending to the former the English laws, and empowering the crown to rule over the people and exercise its authority through a governor and council of his own appointment.

It is true, indeed, that different colonies were differently situated in respect to the government of Great Britain; some having more privileges than others. Some of them were indeed mere provinces, and having no charter, or their charters being taken away, were completely subject to the government of England; while others had a right by their charters to elect representatives among themselves, who should constitute an assembly, which, in conjunction with the governor and council appointed by the king, could make laws for the colony, not incompatible with those of England. We here see the beginning of that form of government established by the colonies when they became independent states.

Hitherto, we must remark that the thirteen colonies were dependents of Great Britain; and most of them were deprived of some privileges which belonged to Englishmen, by the very terms and conditions of their charters. The colonists were, from the beginning, and of necessity, but little more than slaves, so far as their political condition was concerned.

But even the hard conditions of these charters were often violated by the home government, and tyranny was added to injustice. This, doubtless, arose more from the position of the colonies than from any intrinsic tyranny in the government. In the first place, colonies are always regarded as in

stituted for the benefit of the mother country, rather than for the colonists themselves; and it is apt to be an habitual train of thought, that they are to be managed with an exclusive or primary reference to the good of the mother country.

Beside, colonies demand large expenditures for their government and protection, and it is deemed right that they should be made to pay liberally for these: they are also distant, and if they suffer grievances it is difficult for those who are entrenched in power, to be reached by remonstrance or petition. Add to this, that it is usually for the interest of the agents of the government to misrepresent the people they govern, so that they may extort power from their employers and plunder the people by authority.

Under these circumstances, it is not strange that the people of the colonies suffered greatly from the oppressions of the home government. They however flourished. Their numbers increased, as well by natural progress as by emigration. A large portion of those who first emigrated were well educated, and these laid the foundation for general education. The lands became the property of those who cultivated them; and thus a deep interest in promoting the real prosperity of the country was established in the numerous owners of the soil.

The oppressions of the British government had been submitted to by feeble colonists, when they could not help themselves; but they had at length become strong, and began to feel that by union they could resist with effect. At last, roused by new encroachments on their rights, they threw off their allegiance, and on the 4th of July, 1776, declared themselves free, sovereign, and independent.

CHAPTER XLVIII.

Revolutionary Government of the United States.

In the war of the Revolution, thirteen colonies united. Let us look at the means by which that union was sustained during a period of eight years, and in a severe and trying conflict: or, in other words, let us see what was that government under which the colonies carried on the revolutionary struggle to a successful issue.

In 1774, Massachusetts recommended the assembling of a continental Congress at Philadelphia, to consist of delegates from all the colonies, to deliberate upon the common good, and to devise suitable plans of operation for the exigency of the times.

Delegates were accordingly chosen in the various colonies, some by the legislatures and some by conventions of the people. These delegates met at Philadelphia on the 20th September, 1774, and, constituting the first great national Congress, furnished an example which afterwards resulted in our federal government.

This body proceeded to adopt certain rules, one of the most important of which was, that each colony should have but one vote, and this rule was observed throughout the revolution. The delegates adopted such measures as they deemed necessary, and recommended another Congress. This assembled in May, 1775, and resolving upon war, adopted the famous Declaration of Independence* on the 4th of July, 1776. This declaration was unanimously accepted by the American people,

* See this admirable document, in the Appendix of this work.

UNITED STATES REVOLUTIONARY GOVERNMENT. 169

and thenceforward, separation from the government of Great Britain, and national independence, were the open and avowed objects of the revolutionary struggle. To carry out this plan, Congress recommended it to the several colonies to organize state governments, which was accordingly done, and from this time the delegates to Congress were appointed by the state legislatures.

The continental Congress, thus organized by a voluntary union of the states, and delegates being successively appointed from time to time, continued to be the government of the nation until near the close of the war, when certain articles of confederation were adopted. During this period, they assumed and exercised all necessary powers, acting indeed without limit or restraint. There was then no constitution to define their powers. They made war and peace; raised armies and equipped navies; formed treaties and alliances; contracted debts, and exercised all the high functions of government.

It must be admitted that this Congress therefore possessed and exercised an arbitrary and despotic power; but it must be considered, that it was a revolutionary government, entrusted with the management of affairs during an emergency; and farther, that the acts of this government were sustained by the people.

It was obvious, however, that this arrangement was only temporary, for as soon as one of the states should withdraw, the union would be dissolved. After providing for the exigencies of the war, Congress, therefore, directed their attention to the formation of a system, which should give permanency to a union of the states.