Cuba, a leaf has been produced which is pronounced by experts to be fully equal to the imported Sumatra leaf. It is confidently expected that this industry will successfully compete with Sumatra tobacco.1 Tea.-Attempts to produce tea in this country date back to the period before the civil war, but these early attempts were discontinued. Mr. Shepard, of Pinehurst, S. C., has more recently experimented with many different kinds of seed, and has succeeded in producing tea at the rate of 400 pounds to the acre, of a quality pronounced by experts to be inferior to nothing brought to this country. On one field he has produced several times as much tea to the bush as is produced in China and Japan. Mr. Shepard is confident of the possibility of building up a profitable tea industry. Congress has made an appropriation to aid in the prosecution of his experiments.* THE SUGAR INDUSTRIES. The cultivation of sugar beets is becoming one of the most important of the newer agricultural industries of this country. Among the advantages claimed for sugar-beet cultivation are the following: (1) If the leaves, crown, pulp, and molasses are returned to the soil, directly or indirectly, no loss of plant food results from the removal of the sugar itself, which contains no elements of fertility. It is considered important, however, that beets be grown not oftener than once in three or four years on the same land, and they are found to be useful in preparing the soil for other crops. (2) Sugar beets require far more intensive methods of cultivation than most other crops. It is thought that this will tend to improve agricultural methods and teach the American farmer the desirability of fertilizing the soil. (3) The pulp remaining after the extraction of the sugar is an excellent food for cattle and other farm animals, increasing the yield of milk in milch cows, and being favorable also to the production of a choice quality of beef. It results from this circumstance that dairy industries are sometimes built up around beet-sugar factories. The residual molasses, another by-product of sugar manufacture, is also useful as a food for cattle, being sometimes mixed with dried pulp for that purpose. 3 (4) The establishment of sugar factories exerts a marked influence on the labor market, giving employment to many who would otherwise be idle, and relieving to some extent the congestion of population in the cities. The hoeing, thinning, and harvesting of the beets gives employment at light work to men, women, and children, and the hoeing and thinning are done mainly in June and July, after the close of the schools. In Europe the field hand in the sugar-beet industry usually becomes an operative in the sugar factory during the manufacturing season, and so has employment nearly the year round; and a similar arrangement has been attempted in at least one case in this country, the men employed in the factory in the late fall and winter being given employment in the fields during the summer months. It is estimated that a beet-sugar factory should support a laboring population approximately to the number of tons of its daily capacity, and that it would require 400 or 500 factories of 500 tons each to supply the American demand.1 (5) Owing to the custom of the sugar factories of contracting for beets before they are planted, the farmers have no difficulty or uncertainty about the disposal of their crops.5 1 Whitney, 870, 876. *Shepard, 440-443. 2 * Kedzie, 539, 540, 548; Wiley, 646-648, 654; Turnbull, 979; Smith, 571, 578; Saylor, 587; Rogers, 54. 4 Wiley, 652, 653; Smith, 574. * Rogers, 557. (6) Wherever the beet-sugar industry has been established in this country the value of farm land has increased because of the profitableness of the beet crop.1 Profits of sugar-beet culture.-Under favorable conditions the profits of sugarbeet cultivation are large. Figures relating to the experience of 10 farmers in Michigan show that their profits, in a favorable season, ranged from $18.85 to $57.08 an acre. This was in an agricultural community composed largely of Germans and Hollanders, many of whom were accustomed to raising beets in their native homes. It is suggested that foreigners have an advantage over Americans in the raising of sugar beets, in that they are not so averse to getting down on their knees, as is necessary in the thinning of the beets; yet it is said that American farmers in Illinois have grown better beets than could be grown by the Germans, who have the reputation of being the most skillful sugar-beet growers in the world.4 3 It is said to be profitable to raise even one or two acres of sugar beets.5 Sugar bounties.-The beet-sugar industry has been encouraged by several States by bounties on sugar manufactured from beets grown within the State. In some cases the payment of the bounty is conditioned upon the payment of at least a prescribed price for the beets, and in any case the theory is the bounty will indirectly benefit the farmer. In some cases, as in Michigan and Nebraska, the bounty has been discontinued after a few factories were started through the refusal of the legislature to make further appropriations for that purpose. All the witnesses who discuss the subject agree that while a bounty may be necessary at the very beginning, a permanent bounty is unnecessary. The exemption of beet-sugar investments from taxation for a series of years, as practiced in Iowa, is recommended as a desirable means of encouraging the industry." Climates suitable for sugar beets.—It is said that the farther north sugar beets can be brought to maturity the greater will be the sugar content of the beets, partly because of the longer days in northern latitudes. Excellent beets are grown in Canada, but the time for harvesting is so limited on account of the early winter that the industry has not proved as profitable there as farther south, where the beets are not quite so good. While attempts have been made to grow sugar beets in many parts of the South, it has been found that the beets grow too large and have a small sugar content. It costs no more to raise beets containing 18 per cent of sugar than those containing 10 per cent, except that a little more fertilizer may have to be used; and it pays the farmer and the manufacturer to get the largest percentage possible, because every additional per cent of sugar means a clear yield of 20 pounds more sugar to the ton, and the factories pay for the beets according to the amount of sugar they contain. 9 8 Irrigation for sugar beets.-The arid region, where irrigation is possible, is pronounced the ideal place for sugar beet culture, because of the sunny days and the absolute control of the water supply. In the humid regions September rains fol lowed by warm weather result in a second growth which injures the quality of the beet, and the muddy roads interfere with the marketing. It is predicted that sugar beets will be the most profitable crop that can be grown on irrigated lands, and that they will pay fixed charges on land worth $300 an acre, on which grain could not be profitably grown. 10 Transportation to factories.—In Michigan over 50 per cent of the sugar beets are hauled to the factories on cars from points within a radius of 40 miles from the factory. Beets are hauled to Binghamton, N. Y., from points as far away as 75 to 100 miles. Some of the Michigan factories pay the freight on the beets; in 1 Wiley, 648; Smith, 573. 2 Smith, 568. Smith, 578, 579. 4 Davenport, 263, 264. Rogers, 562. 6 Saylor, 589, 590; Rogers, 560; Kedzie, 542, 543. 7 Wiley, 644, 645. * Stubbs, 774. • Wiley, 664. 10 Wiley, 646, 647. 1 other cases they are unloaded free of cost. The factory at Lehi, Utah, has inaugurated an interesting experiment by establishing substations, about 30 miles from the main factory, at which the juice is extracted from the beets and piped to the manufactory. This plan extends the area from which it is practicable to obtain beets, and makes it possible to locate the main factory at the most favorable point for getting fuel, water, etc.2 Manufacture of beet sugar.-There were 30 beet-sugar factories in operation in the United States in 1889, with a total maximum capacity of 19,000 tons daily. In May, 1900, 6 new factories were building, and still others were projected. The average size of the American factories is larger than of those in Europe, the largest being a California factory with a capacity of 3,000 tons of beets daily. It is thought that sugar can be made at the minimum cost by a factory with a capacity of 500 tons daily. It is claimed that the United States now has the best beet sugar factories in the world, and experts come from Europe to study them. While the first American factories imported all their machinery, some of the machines used are now made exclusively in America, and some of the best factories have no imported machinery. In some cases foreign machinery has been found unsatisfactory and inferior to that made in America. It was at first necessary to employ experts from abroad to operate the machinery, but as Americans have learned the processes the amount of foreign labor has diminished." The producers of about one-half of the sugar beets grown in Germany own shares in the factory in which the sugar is manufactured. The inauguration of a similar system of cooperation is recommended in this country as a means of preventing misunderstandings between the manufacturers and the beet growers." A large share of the stock of the Holland Sugar Company, Michigan, is owned by the farmers of the vicinity." Cane sugar. It is thought that Louisiana is not far enough south for cane sugar, though it is too far south for beet sugar, and that the production of cane sugar in the United States is likely to diminish. The cost of producing sugar in Louisiana is considerably higher than farther south. Cuba, Hawaii, and Porto Rico are characterized as natural cane-producing countries. 10 It is estimated that fifty years hence, under favorable conditions, Cuba may produce three million tons of sugar a year. Hawaii exceeds Cuba in the yield per acre, but nearly all the land in Hawaii capable of growing sugar is already under cultivation. Sugar cane is not thought to be susceptible of scientific improvement to the same extent as sugar beets.11 The size and capacity of the Louisiana sugarhouses have been greatly increased during recent years, and it is found that sugarhouses with a capacity of 1,500 tons of cane daily produce sugar much more cheaply than those of 200 tons capacity, requiring no more expert labor. Part of the residual molasses is fed to stock, but as the amount produced is much greater than is needed for that purpose in the vicinity of the sugarhouses, the remainder is mixed with glucose and sold as Louisiana sirup.19 Maple sugar.-Maple sugar is produced to some extent in about half the States of the Union, but its production is greatest in Vermont, New York, and Ohio, in the order named. In Vermont the maple-sugar industry is as important as anything the farmers are engaged in, with the exception of dairying, bringing them an income of from $1,000,000 to $1,500,000 a year without interfering with their 1Smith, 577, 578; Rogers, 553. * Saylor, 585, 586. 'Wiley, 640, 650-652. Rogers, 558, 559. 5 Wiley, 640. Rogers, 558; Smith, 569, 570; Kedzie, 543, 544. 7 Smith, 570, 571, 573. Wiley, 663, 664; Kedzie, 546. » Smith, 572. 10 Wiley, 649, 653, 654; Saylor, 589. 11 Wiley, 653, 654. 12 Stubbs, 774, 775. other products, since the sugar season comes at a time of the year when there is not very much else to be done.1 Consumption and production of sugar.—The annual consumption of sugar in the United States is estimated at about 2,000,000 tons, of which nearly 1,700,000 tons are imported. Three-fifths of the sugar consumed in the country is beet sugar. Of the total world's production of sugar more than half is produced from beets, nearly all the beet sugar being made on the continent of Europe. The demand for beet sugar increases at a very rapid rate, the annual increase for the past 30 years being 12 per cent. It is therefore estimated that this country will be able to consume all the sugar it can produce, including that produced in the insular possessions, for at least a long time to come. A beet-sugar factory such as that at Binghamton, N. Y., produces less than one-third enough sugar to supply a city of 50,000 inhabitants. In 1898 the production of beet sugar in the United States was about fifty or sixty thousand tons, while the imports of foreign beet sugar amounted to 800,000 tons. Dr. Wiley goes so far as to say that the admission duty free of every pound of sugar made in Porto Rico, Cuba, and the Philippines would not affect the progress of the sugar-beet industry in this country, for there would still be a deficit to be supplied. While the cost of producing beet sugar in this country has thus far been somewhat higher than the cost of producing sugar in Germany or Porto Rico, Dr. Wiley predicts that when the industry is well established, with the advantages of superior American machinery and cheap fuel economically used, the cost of production will be almost, if not quite, as low in this country as in Europe, in spite of the greater expense for beets and for labor. He says that in the cultivation of the beet we are still far behind Europe. The low cost of labor is said to be the only great advantage of Porto Rico, Cuba, and Hawaii in sugar production, and attention is called to a tendency toward increased wages in those islands. Mr. Saylor believes that the cost of production will increase in all the islands named and constantly decrease in the United States proper." Some fears are expressed, however, of the effect of the admission of sugar free of duty from the insular possessions of the United States, especially before the industry is well established in this country. It is pointed out that the sugar production of Hawaii increased greatly after the reciprocity treaty of 1876, and that if the production of the Philippines should increase in anything like the same proportion they could supply the entire demand of this country.3 Cane and beet sugar compared.-While no chemical difference between cane and beet sugar has been discovered and it is impossible to distinguish between them in ordinary table use, beet sugar is said to be inferior to cane sugar for preserving, and it is predicted that that will be the chief use for cane sugar in the future. Another difference is that beet sugar must be absolutely pure before it can be used, while cane sugar is good even before it is refined." It is predicted that the United States will eventually make its own sugar, mainly, if not entirely, from beets. To produce the sugar consumed in the United States would require devoting more than a million acres to sugar beets, with the result that this area would be taken out of competition with other agricultural products, while the money now sent abroad for sugar would remain at home, and employment would be given to the unemployed." Sugar refining.—Nearly all the beet-sugar factories in the country are independent of the American Sugar Refining Company, being equipped to make refined sugar. It is apparently profitable for a factory to refine its own sugar when the difference between the prices of yellow sugar and granulated sugar is more than one-half cent, the expense of refining being slight. When the difference has 'Spear, 405-407. "Wiley, 638-640, 649, 650, 653, 655; Snow, 241; Rogers, 555, 562; Saylor, 585, 588, 589. * Snow, 241, 242; Saylor, 589. + Wiley, 650. fallen below that amount, as in 1899, the Binghamton Beet Sugar Company has sold its entire product to the American Sugar Refining Company. Most of the Louisiana sugarhouses are also prepared to refine sugar when the price of unrefined sugar is unsatisfactory." OBSTACLES TO SUCCESSFUL AGRICULTURE. Insect pests.-Dr. Howard gives a systematic account of the ravages of insect pests and the efforts of economic entomologists to abate them. Injurious insects have been a drawback to agriculture as long as men have cultivated crops, but as agriculture has become more extensive the conditions have become more favorable for the rapid multiplication of insects. It is more difficult to exterminate an insect pest in a large field than under a system of intensive culture. The annual loss to this country from injury to crops by insects is estimated at about $300,000,000, and there is also some injury to live stock caused by insects. It has been estimated that the loss would be twice as great as it is if it were not for the work of the economic entomologists. Over against the saving effected in this manner is an expenditure of $30,000 a year by the United States Government and of various amounts by 30 States which have State entomologists. There is now a fairly good remedy for every insect of importance, although at the time of the foundation of the Department of Agriculture not a single reliable remedy was known for any insect pest. Spraying with petroleum or an arsenical solution is often employed, especially for scale insects. For the San Jose scale a wash of lime, sulphur, and salt is used in California in dry weather, while in the East a strong solution of whale oil soap is often used. As most injurious insects are themselves subject to the ravages of parasites, the entomologists have imported from Australia and other countries a number of these parasitic insects, and have also propagated fungous diseases with which to destroy injurious insects. The damage done by the clover-seed midge is prevented in Ohio by cutting the clover a week or two earlier than was formerly customary. Certain other pests are kept away from the crops they formerly injured by concentrating them upon "trap crops" of cowpease, corn, etc. The banding of trees is useful in some cases, but most insects which infest shade trees are strong flyers in the moth stage, so that banding is not an effective protection against them. Birds are an important agency in keeping injurious insects in check, and the shooting of birds therefore increases the chances for the multiplication of insects, though some species of birds are much more useful than others in this respect. It is a significant fact that a majority of the important insect pests prevailing in this country have been imported from abroad. Thus the Hessian fly is supposed to have been introduced in the straw bedding of the Hessian soldiers in the Revolutionary war; the San Jose scale is thought to have been brought to California from Japan; the gipsy moth was imported by a scientist in an attempt to improve upon the silk worm, and the hop-plant louse and other injurious insects have found their way into this country on imported plants. Twenty-one States have inspection laws for nursery stock and other plants brought from outside their borders, to prevent the introduction of injurious insects; but the lack of uniformity in these laws makes it necessary for the nurseryman who ships stock to different States to consult the provisions of the different laws. The desirability of uniform State legislation is emphasized, and the quarantine law of California is mentioned as a model law in most respects. At the port of San Francisco every incoming vessel is boarded by an officer who examines any nursery stock or other vegetables the cargo may contain, and fumigates or destroys any which are infested, if consigned to points in California. But the California law does not prevent the ship |