(1-10) of hundreds, tenths and units; in mental arithmetic, practical problems; in drawing, straight and curved lines, curvilinear figures; in religion, interpretation of Bible verses, etc.

Real School.-In this grade the school instruction is more specific. Instructions are required of a general kind; yet all branches must be studied in the national language, which must be used for practice in thought, speech, and writing.

In the fourth year of the elementary course, the instruction in language proceeds to definitions in grammar and part of etymology. In arithmetic, the multiplication and division is continued in numbers of three figures, and the four ground rules in denominate numbers. In geometry, lines and angles are explained, so as to show to the eye of the scholar geometric form and properties. Of the real sciences the plan of this year incloses: Geography of the Canton of Zurich and of Switzerland; selections from general history; descriptions in natural science. Instruction in singing includes rhythmical exercises and the first principles of method; drawing aims at a quick eye and a steady hand, having regard also to the improvement in penmanship, particularly to German current hand. In religion a catechetical instruction in Old Testament history is given.

The fifth year completes in language the grammar on etymology and syntax; in arithmetic, all operations with fractions; in geometry the peculiarities of the square, sphere, and parallels; weights and measures. The history of Switzerland and an introduction into general geography belong to this course; in singing, practice of melodic and dynamic exercises; drawing and writing from copies, and after more difficult sketches; religion, embracing the history of the New Testament.

The sixth year embraces the complete course of grammar, syntax, business correspondence, plane surveying, selections from natural history and philosophy, singing, more difficult copies in drawing and writing in German and Latin text; instruction in religion so as to interpret difficult passages of Scripture, etc.

In the Elementary School, fourteen hours are devoted to language; five to arithmetic; five to geometry; three to religion. In the Real School, twelve hours are given to language; four to arithmetic; two to geometry; three to selections from natural history and philosophy, etc.; four to drawing, writing and singing, and two to religious instruction.

The Repetition School, occupying only six hours in the week, aims at a careful review of the most essential parts of the previous course. The singing school, in which once a week the pupils of the repetition-school and the catechumens are collected and taught in reference to church singing.

Obligatory school-books are selected in the following manner: A work is sent to the Board of Education for examination; or the Board requests a person, who from his pedagogic experience and position as teacher commands their confidence, to prepare a school-book after a plan indi

cated. The manuscript is then examined by a committee of experts, who may suggest alterations, and finally, indicate a partial acceptance. The author is allowed a fixed sum for the copyright by the Board. The book is printed, and each public teacher is furnished with a copy. After it has been some time in the hands of the teachers, a meeting of the teachers' chapter is held, for consultation on its merits: each chapter elects a representative, and the representatives of all the chapters, at the call of the senior member, assemble in Zurich, where, after a thorough discussion, and by a free and independent vote, (they receive no instructions from their electors,) they either recommend the book for adoption as an obligatory means of instruction, or for modification in certain points, or reject it altogether. Their resolution is presented to the Board of Education, which takes a final decision, generally in accordance with the vote of the teachers. Religious means of instruction are submitted also to the approval of the church council. The expense of delegates of the chapters while away from their homes, and corresponding to the distance from Zurich, is defrayed. The composition in type is preserved until the decision from the Board of Education is made known; in the latter years the State has undertaken the publication of some school-books, and found that this could be done at very little expense, so that for instance a little volume of two sheets comes to five cents.

The course of education of primary teachers is generally as follows:Primary school, secondary school, Seminary. In order to secure a sufficient number of able young men for the profession of teachers, a preparatory institute has been established by the State. Every pupil of a secondary-school at the age of fourteen years can present himself to the district committee for examination as candidate of teachership. His examination, made by a special commission of that committee, shall be chiefly with regard to mental ability and physical constitution. The Director of Education selects from the candidates proposed by the district committee. Every year a candidate is admitted from each district; and if there is no candidate from one district, the place is filled from the names of the examined of another district. Each pupil of a secondaryschool, who is approved as a candidate for teachership, is paid a yearly subsidy of forty-six francs, sixty-seven centimes, upon the recommendation of the director of the Seminary, based on the teacher's report of the conduct and progress of the pupil, rendered each semester.

The admission into the Seminary, and the granting of free scholarships, takes place in the order of the date of registry of the candidates examined and approved.

In the Spring of each year an examination is held for those who wish to obtain the qualification as primary teacher, and for those desiring to obtain a certificate of a higher degree. Strangers are admitted to these examinations, and whoever gives satisfaction can obtain the certificate, no matter what his course of education has been. Admittance is refused only to those who failed at three previous examinations; those who have

been by law deprived of municipal privileges, and those who are unfit for the profession on account of defects of the body. Applications must be made to the Board of Education. The examination is extended on all branches of primary schools, and consists of oral, written and practical exercises; an examination in writing is had only in regard to language and mathematics. Trial lessons may be dispensed with, if the recommendations and certificates of the candidate warrant an exception. The examination is public, and the teachers of the Seminary are the examiners, in conjunction with experts appointed by the Board of Education, from its members or from other teachers. The expert as well as the examiner, after examining a candidate, mark down the result by figure I., II. or III. From these figures and those affixed to the written examination, the total of the certificate is made up by the examining commission, which makes proposal to the Board of Education, in the case of each candidate, as to his non-admission, or to a certificate No. I., (very able,) No. II., (able,) or No. III., (conditional.) The Director of Education issues the certificate in the name of the Board, and the candidate is in possession of the same within a few days after the examination. The members of the examining commission are allowed mileage, etc.; but no charges are made to the candidates. One or more candidates may have an extra examination, for which two members of the Board of Education are appointed. These extra examinations also are gratuitous for candidates of primary schools, but candidates for secondary-schools must defray expenses.

Those who obtain certificate No. III. can pursue a Course of Completion; the pupils of this course are instructed by the teachers of the Seminary, from the beginning of May to the end of July, chiefly in the practical use and theoretical methods of the obligatory studies. At the end of the course an examination is held for those who desire to obtain a better certificate; but no one is forced to subject himself to this examination if he chooses to return with certificate No. III., in which case he is liable to be called upon to take part in a future Course of Completion. The scholars of this course are all teachers in office, for a candidate, after passing this examination, generally finds a temporary or definite engagement. Teachers without means receive a contribution from the State, towards the expenses of a deputy and of their residence at the Seminary. The teachers of the Seminary are paid extra for the Course of Completion.

A public-school teacher can hold only certain offices of the Canton or districts, viz. 1. that of a member of the Great Council; 2. that of a member of the district or parochial school committee. Other offices can be accepted by the teacher only with permission of the district-school committee, which is granted when no disadvantage arises to the school from duties required of such office.

No teacher of the Canton is required to perform any public duty not immediately connected with his profession.

The teachers of Zurich as a class are organized into chapters and a

synod. Primary and secondary teachers compose the chapter; and these together with all the other public teachers form the synod, which thus unites all the teachers of the primary, secondary and high-schools. The chapter usually meets once every three months, and may meet oftener. The place of meeting varies, but must always be in a school-house. All the members of the chapter are obliged to attend; the proceedings of the chapter are not public; officers are elected for two years, and consist of a president, a vice-president, and a secretary. Every member of the chapter, who has not been a public teacher of the Canton during fifteen years, is required to furnish to the president annually a composition in writing on a subject selected by himself. The proceedings of the chapter must occupy at least four hours; they are opened by singing, which is usually followed by some practice in teaching; after which the pupils of the school withdraw, and a discussion on the previous practice and method begins. A discourse of an educational character, followed by a criticism and discussion, and if time permits, on some subject of pedagogy, are part of the regular proceedings. If occasion demands, opinions are expressed on books of instruction, the election of members of the school committees, of officers of the chapter, deputies, librarian, etc., takes place, and scientific lectures are given. Each chapter has a library, for the increase of which the State pays thirty francs per year. A librarian, elected by the members of the chapter, superintends the same. The presidents of chapters assemble annually in Zurich to deliberate on the order of the meetings for the next year. The Board of Education presents a subject for prize composition every year, for which every public teacher may compete. One school in every district is declared the model school, and is selected annually, according to the report of the district committee, by the Board of Education. Each model school receives from the State an annual sum for the increase of its means of instruction and an addition to the teachers' salary. Candidates, i. e., members of the chapter, not definitely appointed, and teachers with certificate No. III., are required to visit the model school; they are also required to present themselves once in a year before the president of the chapter, and render an account of their private studies for further improvement in knowledge, which generally give satisfactory results. All elections in the chapter are by secret ballot, except those for temporary committees. In the last meeting of the chapter preceding the assembling of the synod (last Monday in August,) the "wishes and instructions of synod" are considered, and a deputy to the synod is elected. All the deputies from chapters meet on the evening preceding the meeting of the synod, at the place where the latter is to be held, and thus form the pro-synod; they decide finally on all subjects and petitions of the chapters which shall be the order of the day in the proceedings of the synod.

On the morning of the day of meeting of synod, the members are called to church by a ringing of bells. Singing, a short prayer, and the address of the president open the session; the members who take part

in the assembly (which is not obligatory,) are required to appear dressed in black cloth. The Board of Education is represented by three deputies; the members of district committees can attend as advisory members; the public are admitted. The opening is followed by the reception of new members, the report of the Board of Education on the progress of schools, the report of the director of the Seminary on the labor of the chapters, and the reports of committees. The two first reports are generally ordered to be printed. Next follows a pedagogic lecture, a criticism and discussion of the same; these lectures (always written) are delivered according to a fixed programme, and the meeting can order the publication of lecture and criticism. A pamphlet, containing the proceedings of the school synod, the reports, and sometimes the lecture, is furnished gratuitously to each member. After the debates mentioned above, resolutions are passed with reference to the petitions and wishes of the synod to be presented to the Cantonal authorities; finally the election of officers takes place, whenever the terms of any of them are expiring, or of such as are elected by the synod; also the selection of special committees. The synod elects a president, vice-president, secretary for two years, not to be reëlected, two members of the Board of Education, and the members of special committees. The meeting is closed by singing. The place where synod is to be held is changed every year. The budget of the State is charged with a certain sum for the expenses of printing, etc., of the synod. Extraordinary meetings of synod may be held, upon resolution of the synod or of the Board of Education, or upon the demand of three chapters. A committee of the school synod of Zurich has published a collection of songs for male choirs and one for mixed choirs, music and poetry in part by Zurich teachers, which are distributed all over Europe on account of the fine selection and the unexampled low price. In some parts of the canton they have a voluntary teachers' union, the members of which meet every two or three weeks, and in an afternoon session labor for their professional improvement. In these meetings they make extempore speeches on subjects of instruction, experiments in methodic and practical teaching, criticism of new books, etc.

Each school has its treasury and a fund (Schulgut) administered by the school administrator, who is elected by the commune for the term of four years, and can be reëlected. Every member of the school commune is eligible for this position; but the office gives no salary. The interest accruing from the school fund only is used, and forms one item of the revenue of schools for current expenses. All the citizens of a community are members of the school commune in which they reside; those who acquire citizenship must pay a certain sum in order to become members of the school commune, proportionate to the amount of the fund. Into this school fund, according to law, are paid :—

1. All ground-rents and tithes, if any existing.

2. Fees of immigration, which means a sum paid when a member of