the commune marries a woman belonging to another commune, which sum is considerable if the wife is from another country. (For a Swiss woman it amounts to four francs, for a German to forty francs.)

3. Fees of marriage, amounting to two francs at least.

4. Voluntary school tax, the proceeds of a collection on one Sunday in the year, when a sermon is preached in all the churches on Education, and which is distributed among the schools of a parish in proportion to the number of pupils.

5. Voluntary contributions and donations.

6. Legacies.

As all these receipts flow into the school fund, while the interest of the principal can only be expended, an increase is very wisely provided, and accrues from year to year.

In the year 1850-51, the total of school funds in the Canton amounted to 225,791 francs, 73 centimes; in the year 1851–52, to 230,415 francs, 31 centimes. Besides the interest of the fund, the school treasury receives the proceeds of public lands, fees for tuition, fines, part of the fees of settlement in a commune, contributions from the State, and taxes. From the treasury are paid: salaries of teachers, pensions, means of instruction, care, heating, repair and building of school-houses, interest on debts, and other current expenses. If the receipts are smaller than the expenses, the school commune may order a general tax, of which threefourths is levied on the income, one-eighth in equal parts on all citizens, and an eighth in equal parts on all householders. The fee of settlement depends on the value of the property of a commune, and one-third of this fee goes into the school treasury, one-third into the fund for the poor, and one-third to the commune.

For each pupil of the day-school, one shilling per week is paid; for each pupil of the repetition-school, half a shilling. (A shilling is 35-100 francs.) This school fee is paid from the fund for the poor, when the parents have no means, and are depending on charity; if the parents are poor, but not depending on charity, the State pays part of the instruction, and school-books for their children. Though children do not attend the school of the commune, yet the fees for tuition must be paid as long as they are required by law to attend school. The fees of tuition form a part of the teacher's salary, but they are collected with other taxes and paid to the teacher by the administrator. The school commune is obliged to pay annually one hundred francs towards the teachers' salary, to furnish him two cords of wood, a suitable residence, and a piece of garden land, or in place of these, an amount of money to be fixed by the school committee. The communes are not obliged to pay pensions to teachers, and do this voluntarily only to deserving teachers, or when, in case of dissatisfaction not justifying a removal, but making the suspension of the teacher desirable, they have purchased the latter at the price of a pension. As a general rule, pensions are paid by the State, in consideration of age, years of service, previous salary and usefulness of the person.

The maximum of pensions is one hundred and sixty francs. Moreover the State gives aid to thirty or forty old teachers, who are still in service, when they need a temporary assistant, by sums of forty to sixty francs per year; and the two oldest teachers of the Canton receive a yearly subsidy of twenty francs, which are taken from the interest of a fund bequeathed for this purpose by an unknown friend of the schools.

To the fees for tuition and the contribution of the school commune must still be added a third part which the State pays towards the salary of teachers, and which till 1850 amounted to one hundred francs for each teacher. During the year 1850 the salaries of teachers were increased, and whenever the same, as derived from the State, (one hundred francs,) the commune, (one hundred francs,) and half of the tuition fee, does not reach the sum of three hundred and sixty francs, the deficit is made up by the State. It has also been resolved that after ten years of service, the minimum of a teacher's salary shall be four hundred francs; and be increased according to age and the number of pupils.

In the Canton of Zurich, the sale of salt is a monopoly of the State, and from the profits resulting from it in each commune, six per cent. is paid into the school fund; the sum thus realized is distributed by the school committee to the different school communes, in the ratio of the number of their pupils, and may be incorporated into the school fund or used for current expenses.

Finally the State devotes annually twenty thousand francs for the purpose of, 1. to facilitate improvements in instruction, and for the benefit of the school in general when necessary; 2. to contribute towards the fees of tuition for children of poor families, and their school-books, which latter are given gratuitously or at a moderate price; 3. to encourage school communes of limited means to introduce modern improvements. In distributing these contributions among the communes, the following questions must be answered by the school committee:—

1. Would there have been a deficit in the treasury of the school commune for the year ending December 31st last, if the receipts were derived solely from the interest of the school fund, rents of estates, sale of products, fees of tuition, fines, fees of settlement; and the expenses had been only for teachers' salaries, pensions, cost of means of instruction, heating and repair of school-house, interest on debts, and minor current expenses? How large would the deficit be in this case? If this deficit should be made up by a general school-tax, how much would be imposed per thousand francs of property, or would have to be laid on each household and on each citizen?

2. How many pupils of parents, not depending on charity, but poor, and who pay not more than one franc of State tax per year, have attended the day-school, repetition and singing-school during the last three months?

3. Have special efforts been made, during the last year, in the schooldistrict, for the promotion of school matters? What was the object of these efforts?

When an affirmative answer is given to question No. 3, the following is added:

4. What was the total number of pupils in the day-school, the repetition and singing-school, and the amount of taxable property in the school commune at the end of the scholastic year?

The duty to provide suitable school-houses rests upon the school commune. Freeholders are required to contribute for the building of the school-house in the place in which they reside; other citizens are taxed for the school-house in their home, that is, the place in which they hold citizenship. There are distinct regulations existing with regard to the details in the arrangement of new school-houses, as for instance on the selection of the building lot, description of school-rooms, seats and desks, etc., residence of the teacher, partition of the building, style and material, etc.

A school-room for 100-120 pupils must be of 1062 13-16 square feet, not less than ten feet in height; the windows six feet high, and four feet wide. The teacher's residence must occupy one half of the building, and must contain a study, kitchen, two chambers, a cellar, woodshed, etc. Lightning rods must be attached to every school-house.

When the frame and roof is completed, the commune can petition the State for a contribution, for the purpose of erecting a residence for the teacher, showing by accounts properly verified, and attested by the dif ferent school-committees, the cost of the building thus far, and also the condition of the property of the commune. In the year 1851-52, four thousand three hundred and two francs were granted for such purposes by the State; at the end of that year, three hundred and forty-one schoolrooms were reported as in good condition, ninety-eight as tolerably good, and thirty-one as not satisfactory.

II. SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

By the establishment of secondary public schools, the State has gratified the desires of those parents who wish to give their children of the age of twelve years an education beyond that of primary schools, or to prepare them, in the vicinity of their homes, for the studies of the superior schools. The main object of the secondary-school, however, is a better general education of the people, not to prepare for professional or high-schools. According to the intention of the founders of these schools, they should aim at training a class of intelligent citizens, who would be able to become leaders in public life or suitable members of the schoolcommittees; while the plan of instruction in primary schools embraces language, number, form, art, religion. The different branches of science appear more distinctly in the plan of secondary-schools. Yet the secondary-school teacher who would introduce an abstract system of distinct

Note.--The author observes here, that there is a popular current in favor of some modification in the school organism. For instance, the office of Cantonal Inspector should be created; the preparatory school of the Seminary should be discontinued, and the course at the Seminary extended to four years, etc.

parts of science, would not fulfil the object of his school, which is rather more to select useful and instructive matters of science, and to present them in a striking and direct manner, with the vivacity peculiar to the people. The subjects of instruction in the secondary-school are: Religion, the German and French languages, arithmetic and geometry, history and geography, natural science, drawing, penmanship and singing. All these studies, except the French language, are obligatory upon all pupils.

A distinct plan of instruction, binding on all teachers, does not exist; the peculiar demands of each district are taken into account, perhaps more than is beneficial.

Each scholastic year in itself shall offer something complete, some total part of science, which however must be arranged so as to form a basis for the instructions of the next year.

This demand, which is difficult to observe, is made by the law, in order to give a kind of finished education to those who can attend this school but for one or two years. The complete course is for three years; those who attend the secondary-school for two years are no longer required to join the repetition-school. Usually the secondary-school is divided into three classes; the hours of instruction are thirty-three per week, and vacations of seven weeks per year. As boys and girls enter the secondaryschools, a division into more classes often becomes necessary, since many branches can not well oe taught to both sexes alike. Notwithstanding this, however, a teacher of a good secondary-school gives to his pupils the same instruction that can be obtained in the three or four classes of a higher burgher-school in Germany from a number of teachers. It frequently happens that talented pupils from the highest class of the seconary-school are admitted in the first class of the lower school of industry, or after some private study, into the lower class of the upper school of industry. The forty-eight secondary-schools of the Canton are so distributed as to be accessible to all; they were attended during the year 1851-52 by twelve hundred and sixty pupils. Where the number of pupils is large, or when several districts unite their means, several teachers are engaged, who divide the several branches of instruction among themselves according to their preference. Those who enter a secondary-school must be twelve years old, and are required to prove, in an examination, that they have obtained the knowledge imparted by primary schools. The teacher has a vote in the decision of the examining committee. The fee of tuition amounts to sixteen francs for each pupil, and goes into the school fund. Whenever the condition of the school permits, four free scholarships must be granted.

Almost all secondary teachers obtain their professional education at a seminary; next they take their residence for some time in the French cantons of Switzerland, in order to acquire a perfect knowledge of that language. There are also secondary teachers who never attended a seminary, but attended the instructions at a cantonal school, a polytechnic

school, or a high-school, etc. In order to become qualified as secondary teacher, a satisfactory examination is all that is required; the examining committee consists of the teachers of the Seminary, and one expert for each branch appointed by the Board of Education. Strangers are admitted to these examinations. Except mathematics and the two languages, the candidate may decline examination in one branch; but if he gives satisfaction in all the other branches, he will obtain the qualification of secondary teacher. One who does not pass the examination satisfactorily in mathematics and languages, obtains only a qualification for certain branches, and may be engaged for these branches as assistant of the teacher of any school, but he can not take the sole charge of a secondaryschool himself. The certificate of examination contains a note on the efficiency of the candidate in each branch of secondary instruction.

Uniformity of books and means of instruction have not been secured in the schools of Zurich; efforts are made in this direction. The approval of the Board of Education is required, before any work can be introduced into schools.

All secondary-schools have a school fund (Schulgut,) made up from contributions of the State, private donations, and increased here and there by foundations for the benefit of higher schools. From the year 1833 the State made annual contributions to each of the fifty secondary school-districts for the purpose of establishing seconday popular schools, at first to the amount of three hundred and twenty francs, and since 1836, of seven hundred and twenty francs, and the withdrawal of this amount was threatened if a secondary-school were not established and in active operation in the district in the year 1840. Several districts organized their school in 1839, when a considerable school fund had accrued from the regular contributions and the interest thereof. The State still continues the contributions; thus the receipts of a secondary-school are derived from: 1. the State (seven hundred and twenty francs;) 2. the interest of the school fund; 3. the fees of tuition. In 1851-52, the amount of school funds in the Canton was 230,415 francs, 31 centimes. At first, from doubts of the permanency of secondary-schools, teachers were engaged for a term of six years; this fear has disappeared, and their office is now for life. Each secondary teacher receives from the school fund eight hundred francs, and a free residence, or in place of it an additional sum of one hundred francs. The school committee can make additions to this fixed salary. The administrator of the secondary school fund is nominated from the members of the school committee. Instruction in religion is usually given by the resident pastor; and a remuneration made for his labor. Assistant teachers for singing, penmanship, etc., are to be paid by the teacher of the school; the latter may occupy the position of resident pastor or assistant pastor, together with that of secondary teacher.

City Schools of Zurich and Winterthur.

The city schools of Zurich embrace the primary school, secondary