efforts, caused his appointment to be hailed on all sides as a most fortunate one. And yet, through the very power of circumstances, was he carried away into such an opposition to all the ruling efforts of the time, that perhaps there never was another administration whose beginning and end gave rise to such differences of opinion. The attitude which Eichhorn took towards the Hegelian philosophy, till then almost exclusively · in favor, and which he considered to produce nothing but dialectical sleights of hand, and as tending to undermine the Christian principle of life, his faith drawing ever closer to orthodoxy, had to be adjusted in the higher school-administration by different views and principles. He had certainly only undertaken the Ministry when he saw that his private conviction was in perfect harmony with the opinion of the king, and he was persuaded that when the views and ideas of the king were properly understood, treated as a unity, and carried out, there would be more cause than ever before to hope for the regeneration of Prussia and Germanya regeneration which would give entire satisfaction to all free-thinking and reasonable wishes, and to all just demands.

The condition of public instruction was a cardinal object of the king's solicitude. It can not be denied that in the last twenty years the gymnasiums had to contend with much that was unfavorable. The new impulse given to industrial pursuits cast a certain reproach upon gymnasial studies, and made them appear superfluous; and seemed to require another species of high-schools, in which the realistic and practical should be recognized and provided for. The teacher could see in the younger generation a kind of pantheistical turn of mind which appeared unfavorable to Christianity. An ever greater disproportion in the outward circumstances of the teacher, with the increasing wealth that seemed to reach every one but him, became sensibly apparent; finally the unusual zeal with which everywhere higher culture was encouraged, had formed for the State, the Church, and the profession of teaching a greater number of individuals than could be well employed, and these had not yet found, after going through college, their adequate circle of activity in other spheres of life. Many of those also who had been educated in the so-called practical schools, had not yet learned to apply their acquired knowledge to their several trades, and to raise them in value. Eichhorn wished to remedy all these evils, and to satisfy all just demands. He aimed to give to the higher school-administration such an organization as would enable its members to take a more life-inspiring view of the actual condition of the schools, and a more active cooperation in their welfare. He was resolved to organize, under the name of supreme schoolcouncil, a higher, technical school-committee or section, which, for the administration of the inner life of the public establishments of learning, should enter into all the questions touching the qualifications of the teacher, the object, methods, and necessary means of teaching, and provide for this work a sufficient number of theoretical and practical men already eminent in the profession. The events of March 18, 1848, de

prived him of his position and frustrated the realization of his plans.* The only lasting change that was made during his administration, was the re-introduction of gymnastics, by a cabinet order, June 6, 1842; and according to the king's own wish, this branch of instruction was made an integral part in the education of the people.

A few weeks after Eichhorn, Dr. Eiler also left the ministry, (Dec. 30, 1848.) He had been previously gymnasium director at Kreuznach, then school-counselor at Coblenz, and since December 1, 1840, co-laborer in the Ministry, where, October 30, 1843, he was elected speaker of the council-chamber. He enjoyed the particular confidence of his minister, and coöperated in the department of education for the high-schools, when it came to a question of morals, or to fill the vacancies of directors and teachers.

As Eichhorn could not expect of his counselors to be active, where he himself could not act according to his inner conviction, he had instrusted the conduct of the evangelical gymnasium affairs to Kortüm, privy counselor of the supreme court, who till then had had charge of the public instruction. Having previously been director of a gymnasium and schoolmaster of Dusseldorf, the latter was perfectly competent to undertake the gymnasium affairs. Prudent and considerate, he avoided making any unnecessary changes. John Schulze retained his position as reporter of universities, in which, after fifty years of service, he died, privy supreme counselor, regretted by all who had appreciated his high merits and the eminent services he had rendered to public education. Amidst the confusion and conflicting opinions of 1848 and the years following, when Count of Schwerin till June 25, Rodbertus till July 3, and Von Ladenberg as commissioner till December 19, 1850, conducted the ministerial affairs, Kortüm acted as mediator in the administration, and endeavored to soothe and harmonize if possible the antagonistic elements of that time. After a repeated and violent call for a closer connection between the higher private schools and the so-called real schools, he inclined towards the idea of fusing into one the three lower classes of the two institutions, but the transactions of the country school-conference, of which he was president from April 16 till May 11, 1849, and still more the discussion on the education laws in the ministry itself, brought him back to the opinion that the principle upon which the gymnasiums and real schools were based, should be considered as an independent one. He retired from public life, June 7, 1852. His place was filled by Dr. L. Wiese, then professor in the Joachim gymnasium, previously privy state counselor and inspector of the higher academies.

From 1850 to November 8, 1858, the ministerial affairs were conducted by Von Raumer. The latter found no occasion to make any radical changes in the high-school administration, and made it his chief duty to direct well and improve what had already been done. In this, however,

* See Eichhorn Ministry, by a Collengue. Berlin: 1849. My Pilgrimage through Life, by Dr. Gerd. Eilers; vol. iv. Leipzig: 1858.

he found various opportunities for improvements; among these may be named the changes made in 1856, in the recitation system and the regulations for the examinations, both of which tended towards a simplification and greater concentration in instruction. He made it his chief object to see personally after the inner and outer welfare of all the institutions of learning, having the most distant ones visited by departmental counselors of the ministry, and attending to those of the capital himself. The better to train young teachers for the profession, it was thought worth while to induce distinguished schoolmen to adopt as disciples young philologists and mathematicians, that they might learn the art of teaching. Under his administration, fourteen gymnasiums were founded, and the position of the gymnasium teachers improved by an increase of salary of 13 per cent.

Von Raumer's resignation gave the conduct of ministerial affairs to Von Bethmann-Hollweg, whose independent and dignified manners, and political talents, as well as his high intellectual and scientific merits, raised many expectations and ardent hopes. But his short administration, which lasted only till March 10, 1862, interrupted as it was by political party troubles, allowed him only to carry out what was already begun. It proved, however, an important one for the real schools and the higher private schools, which, by the instruction and regulation of October 6, 1859, received an independent organization. As reference to his administration, he published in 1860 a report, under the name "Central Journal of all Educational affairs."

He was succeeded by Von Mühler, who till then had occupied the position of president of the supreme church-council, and since 1840 had been co-laborer and speaker in the ministry. His career was marked by a great activity for improvements, by various foundations of higher institutions and generous endowments, and by the care he took and the judgment he showed in promoting the development and formation of the higher instruction.

The affairs of the Catholic schools were, since 1839, conducted in the ministry by Brüggemann, who displayed in the discharge of his duties much zeal and circumspection. He was born, March 31, 1796. In 1823 he was second director of the gymnasium of Düsseldorf, and stood next to Kortum, at the same time consistory-counselor. In 1831 he was made State and school-counselor at Coblenz, and in 1837 was called to the ministry of Berlin, and sent to Rome as mediator during the ecclesiastical disputes of that time. In 1839 he became co-laborer in the ministry; in 1841, privy State counselor; in 1861, privy supreme State counselor. He died March 31, 1866, shortly after having tendered the resignation of his office, which he had held to the satisfaction of all parties. The province school-counselor of Breslau, Dr. Stieve, succeeded him as privy State counselor.

B. SINGLE PROVINCES.

During the gradual development of a central administration in the Prussian States, it was a necessary condition of things, that the various

peculiarities of the single territories in their school-administration should be retained. The General Directory instituted by Frederic William I. embraced four Departments, as follows:-1, Prussia, Pomerania, Newmark; 2, Minden, Ravensberg, Tecklenburg, Linzen; 3, Kurmark, Magdeburg, Halberstadt; 4, Geldern, Cleves, Mörs, Neufchatel. After 1750, the supervision of public instruction in the whole kingdom was conducted by the consistories of the provinces, together with distinguished doctors and professors of theology, the whole under the general inspection of the higher consistories of Berlin. Silesia had its own high consistories at Breslau, Brieg, and Glogau.

When, in 1808, the supreme administration of matters of instruction was given over to the Department of the Interior, the councils of the provinces received the name of governments; in each of these a Deputation for Public Worship and Instruction was established as a special council, to be under the immediate dependence of the section of the department belonging to the place. The regulation of October 27, 1810, ordered besides, three scientific deputations for public instruction in Berlin, Königsberg, and Breslau. Their office consisted in the examination of the candidates for the higher school profession, in plans of teaching, methods, and text-books, as well as all that related to the final examinations at the gymnasiums, (maturity examination, Abiturienten Prufungen.) They were further to give their opinion on all that concerned the practical management of schools, and to maintain in use those principles of science from which the single maxims of administration are derived. They were also at liberty to send to the higher council any propositions or requests on the subject of education. The deputation in Berlin, to which, beside Nicolovius and Süvern, also Ancillon, Schleiermacher and Fr. A. Wolf belonged, was to take the place of the supreme school-board (Oberschul-collegium,) which had been abolished in 1808.

After the new division of the State, which comprised at first ten, then eight provinces, the direction of the affairs of public instruction was given to the chief president (Oberpresident,) of the several provinces. He presided over the consistory instituted in the principal city of the province. By the regulation of October 23, 1817, the consistories were to take charge of the internal affairs of the church and school, and the governments of their external affairs, especially of the administration of the church and school property. The scientific deputations were replaced by the literary commissions for examination. The consistories had also the right of inspection over the affairs of Roman Catholic schools and education, but the Catholic bishops retained their legal control over their form of government and religious instruction, and had the nomination of their special religious teachers. For the affairs of secondary schools of the province school-collegiums, (Provincial schul-collegien,) were instituted, in 1826, separated from the consistorium entirely in 1845, and the separation of funds followed in 1848. The whole of the administration of the property of the institutions belonging to the school-colle

giums passed with few exceptions over to these. The seats of schoolcollegiums are established in Königsberg, Posen, Breslau, Stettin, Magdeburg, Munster, Coblenz, Berlin.

The instructions of May 14, 1829, imposed on the general superintendents the duty of directing their special attention towards the religious and clerical tendency of the higher academies and private schools; they could be represented in their school-inspection by members of the royal consistories and by consistorial representative school-counselors of the royal governments. For the appointment of religious teachers, a unanimous vote of the church and school-councils is necessary. Religious instruction can only be intrusted to those teachers or clergymen, against whom the respective church-councils make no objection. New religious text-books can only be introduced with the approbation of the churchcouncils. Where there is a board of trustees, it is the custom to appoint the first clergymen of the place as one of them.

I. Prussia. It was among the great masters of the religious orders of the country, and particularly through Winrich von Kniprode (13511382,) that the first efforts were made for the establishment of schools. "It is absolutely necessary," said he, "that, not only a few, but many schools be established in Prussia." Notwithstanding this earnest advice, however, it was only after Albert of Brandenburg (1510–1568) that Latin schools were established, and that, in the principal cities only. These, however, increased and improved considerably after the introduction of the Reformation. After the conquest of Western Prussia in 1772, the valid school-laws of Eastern Prussia were established in the new countries also, and the schools of the Jesuits partly organized into royal Catholic gymnasiums. At the second division of Poland, in 1793, by which, under the name of South Prussia, with the exception of Posen, the cities of Danzig and Thorn with their old schools were incorporated, the ratification patent recommended, concerning the institution of religious and civil judicature in the new province, that, to secure peace and happiness for the annexed country, it was necessary to give special care and attention to education, and called upon the churches and schools to further this object. That portion of Poland which became Prussia's share in the third division, in 1795, was lost again by the peace of Tilsit (1807,) and finally annexed to Russia in 1815. Many and various obstacles still prevent the successful development of the higher schools in this province. The scholars, particularly in the smaller towns, belong mostly to the lower ranks-enter the higher schools only when already advanced in years, and suffer especially from the pressure of domestic circumstances.

II. Posen. That portion of South Prussia which, falling back to the kingdom, was constituted into a separate province, under the name of the Grand Duchy of Posen, received no special laws for its school-administration, but became subject to the general rules. It contained in 1815 only two higher academies: the gymnasium (Symultan-gymnasium) for both confessions at Posen, and the school at Lissa. Since then, the royal