I. In view of the considerations which have been suggested, the rule which is adopted by some courts, that they will not de tion. Mr. Arnold, in his history of Rhode Island, Vol. II. c. 24, gives an account of this case; and the printed brief in opposition to the law, and in defence of the impeached judges, is in possession of the present writer. The act in question was one which imposed a heavy penalty on any one who should refuse to receive on the same terms as specie the bills of a bank chartered by the State, or who should in any way discourage the circulation of such bills. The penalty was made collectible on summary conviction, without jury trial; and the act was held void on the ground that jury trial was expressly given by the colonial charter, which then constituted the constitution of the State. Although the judges were not removed on impeachment, the legislature refused to re-elect them when their terms expired at the end of the year, and supplanted them by more pliant tools, by whose assistance the paper money was forced into circulation, and public and private debts extinguished by means of it. Concerning the other case, we copy from the Western Law Monthly, "Sketch of Hon. Calvin Pease," Vol. V. p. 3, June, 1863: "The first session of the Supreme Court [of Ohio] under the constitution was held at Warren, Trumbull County, on the first Tuesday of June, 1803. The State was divided into three circuits. . . . The Third Circuit of the State was composed of the counties of Washington, Belmont, Jefferson, Columbiana, and Trumbull. At this session of the legislature, Mr. Pease was appointed President Judge of the Third Circuit in April, 1803, and though nearly twentyseven years old, he was very youthful in his appearance. He held the office until March 4, 1810, when he sent his resignation to Governor Huntingdon. . . . During his term of service upon the bench many interesting questions were presented for decision, and among them the constitutionality of some portion of the act of 1805, defining the duties of justices of the peace; and he decided that so much of the fifth section as gave justices of the peace jurisdiction exceeding $20, and so much of the twenty-ninth section as prevented plaintiffs from recovering costs in actions commenced by original writs in the Court of Common Pleas, for sums between $20 and $50, were repugnant to the Constitution of the United States and of the State of Ohio, and therefore null and void. . . . The clamor and abuse to which this decision gave rise was not in the least mitigated or diminished by the circumstance that it was concurred in by a majority of the judges of the Supreme Court, Messrs. Huntingdon and Tod. . . . At the session of the legislature of 1807-8, steps were taken to impeach him and the judges of the Supreme Court who concurred with him; but the resolutions introduced into the House were not acted upon during the session. But the scheme was not abandoned. At an early day of the next session, and with almost indecent haste, a committee was appointed to inquire into the conduct of the offending judges, and with leave to exhibit articles of impeachment, or report otherwise, as the facts might justify. The committee without delay reported articles of impeachment against Messrs. Pease and Tod, but not against Huntingdon, who in the mean time had been elected governor of the State. The articles of impeach ment were preferred by the House of Representatives on the 23d day of December, 1808. He was summoned at once to appear before the senate as a high court of impeachment, and he promptly obeyed the summons. The managers of the prosecution on the part of the House were Thomas Morris, afterwards senator in Congress from Ohio, Joseph Sharp, James Pritchard, Samuel Marrett, and Othniel Tooker. Several days were consumed in the investigation, but the trial resulted in the acquittal of the respondent." Sketch of Hon. George Tod, August number of same volume: "At the session of the legislature of 1808-9, he was impeached for concurring in decisions made by Judge Pease, in the counties of Trumbull and Jefferson, that certain provisions of the act of the legislature, passed in 1805, defining the duties of justices of the peace, were in conflict with the Constitution of the United States and of the State of Ohio, and therefore void. These decisions of the courts of Common Pleas and of the Supreme Court, it was insisted, cide a legislative act to be unconstitutional by a majority of a bare quorum of the judges only, less than a majority of all, but will instead postpone the argument until the bench is full, seems a very prudent and proper precaution to be observed before entering upon questions so delicate and so important. The benefit of the wisdom and deliberation of every judge ought to be had under circumstances so grave. Something more than private rights are involved; the fundamental law of the State is in question, as well as the correctness of legislative action; and considerations of courtesy, as well as the importance of the question involved, should lead the court to decline to act at all, where they cannot sustain the legislative action, until a full bench has been consulted, and its deliberate opinion is found to be against it. But this is a rule of propriety, not of constitutional obligation; and though generally adopted and observed, each court will regulate, in its own discretion, its practice in this particular.1 were not only an assault upon the wisdom and dignity, but also upon the supremacy of the legislature, which passed the act in question. This could not be endured; and the popular fury against the judges rose to a very high pitch, and the senator from the county of Trumbull in the legislature at that time, Calvin Cone, Esq., took no pains to soothe the offended dignity of the members of that body, or their sympathizing constituents, but pressed a contrary line of conduct. The judges must be brought to justice, he insisted vehemently, and be punished, so that others might be terrified by the example, and deterred from committing similar offences in the future. The charges against Mr. Tod were substantially the same as those against Mr. Pease. Mr. Tod was first tried, and acquitted. The managers of the impeachment, as well as the result, were the same in both cases.' tion, without any indemnity in the law if it proves to be invalid. Undoubtedly when the highest courts in the land hesitate to declare a law unconstitutional, and allow much weight to the legislative judgment, the inferior courts should be still more reluctant to exercise this power, and a becoming modesty would at least be expected of those judicial officers who have not been trained to the investigation of legal and constitutional questions. But in any case a judge or justice, being free from doubt in his own mind, and unfettered by any judicial decision properly binding upon him, must follow his own sense of duty upon constitutional as well as upon any other questions. See Miller v. State, 3 Ohio St.475; Pim v. Nicholson, 6 Ohio St. 176; Mayberry v. Kelly, 1 Kan. 116. In the case last cited it is said: "It is claimed by counsel for the plaintiff in error, that the point raised by the instruction is, that inferior courts and ministerial officers have no right to judge of the constitutionality of a law passed by a legis 1 Briscoe v. Commonwealth Bank of Kentucky, 8 Pet. 118. It has been intimated that inferior courts should not presume to pass upon constitutional ques-lature. But is this law? If so, a court tions, but ought in all cases to treat stat utes as valid. Ortman v. Greenman, 4 Mich. 291. But no tribunal can exercise judicial power unless it is to decide according to its judgment; and it is difficult to discover any principle of justice which can require a magistrate to enter upon the execution of a statute when he believes it to be invalid, especially when he must thereby subject himself to prosecu created to interpret the law must disregard the constitution in forming its opinions. The constitution is law, the fundamental law, and must as much be taken into consideration by a justice of the peace as by any other tribunal. When two laws apparently conflict, it is the duty of all courts to construe them. If the conflict is irreconcilable, they must decide which is to prevail; and the con II. Neither will a court, as a general rule, pass upon a constitutional question, and decide a statute to be invalid, unless a decision upon that very point becomes necessary to the determination of the cause. "While courts cannot shun the discussion of constitutional questions when fairly presented, they will not go out of their way to find such topics. They will not seek to draw in such weighty matters collaterally, nor on trivial occasions. It is both more proper and more respectful to a co-ordinate department to discuss constitutional questions only when that is the very lis mota. Thus presented and determined, the decision carries a weight with it to which no extra-judicial disquisition is entitled." In any case, therefore, where a constitutional question is raised, though it may be legitimately presented by the record, yet if the record also presents some other and clear ground upon which the court may rest its judgment, and thereby render the constitutional question immaterial to the case, that course will be adopted, and the question of constitutional power will be left for consideration until a case arises which cannot be disposed of without considering it, and when consequently a decision upon such question will be unavoidable.2 III. Nor will a court listen to an objection made to the constitutionality of an act by a party whose rights it does not affect, and who has therefore no interest in defeating it.3 On this ground it has been held that the objection that a legislative act was unconstitutional, because divesting the rights of remaindermen against their will, could not be successfully urged by the owner of the particular estate, and could only be made on behalf of the remainder-men themselves. And a party who has assented to his property being taken under a statute cannot afterwards object that the statute is in violation of a provision in the constitution designed for the protection of private property.5 stitution is not an exception to this rule of construction. If a law were passed in open, flagrant violation of the constitution, should a justice of the peace regard the law, and pay no attention to the constitutional provision? If that is his duty in a plain case, is it less so when the construction becomes more difficult?" 1 Hoover v. Wood, 9 Ind. 286, 287; Ireland v. Turnpike Co., 19 Ohio St. 369; Smith v. Speed, 50 Ala. 276; Allor v. Auditors, 43 Mich. 76; Board of Education v. Mayor of Brunswick, 72 Ga. 353. See People v. Kenney, 96 N. Y. 294. 2 Ex parte Randolph, 2 Brock. 447; Frees v. Ford, 6 N. Y. 176, 178; Cumber The statute is assumed to be valid, until some one complains whose rights it invades. "Prima facie, and upon the face of the act itself, nothing will generally appear to show that the act is not valid; and it is only when some person attempts to resist its operation, and calls in the aid of the judicial power to pronounce it void, as to him, his property or his rights, that the objection of unconstitutionality can be presented and sustained. Respect for the legislature, therefore, concurs with well-established principles of law in the conclusion that such an act is not void, but voidable only; and it follows, as a necessary legal inference from this position, that this ground of avoidance can be taken advantage of by those only who have a right to question the validity of the act, and not by strangers. To this extent only is it necessary to go, in order to secure and protect the rights of all persons against the unwarranted exercise of legislative power, and to this extent only, therefore, are courts of justice called on to interpose." 1 IV. Nor can a court declare a statute unconstitutional and void, solely on the ground of unjust and oppressive provisions, or because it is supposed to violate the natural, social, or political rights of the citizen, unless it can be shown that such injustice is prohibited or such rights guaranteed or protected by the constitution. It is true there are some reported cases, in which judges have been understood to intimate a doctrine different from what is here asserted; but it will generally be found, on an examination of those cases, that what is said is rather by way of argument and illustration, to show the unreasonableness of putting upon constitutions such a construction as would permit legislation of the objectionable character then in question, and to induce a more cautious and patient examination of the statute, with a view to discover in it, if possible, some more just and reasonable legislative intent, than as laying down a rule by which courts would be at liberty to limit, according to their own judgment and sense of justice and propriety, the extent of legislative power in directions in which the constitution had imposed no restraint. Mr. Justice Story, in one case, in examining the extent of power granted by the charter of Rhode Island, which authorized the General Assembly to make laws in the most ample manner, "so as such laws, &c., be not contrary and repugnant unto, but as near as may be agreeable to, the laws of England, considering the nature 1 Wellington, Petitioner, 16 Pick. 87, 96. And see Hingham, &c. Turnpike Co. v. Norfolk Co., 6 Allen, 353; De Jarnette v. Haynes, 23 Miss. 600; Sinclair e. Jackson, 8 Cow. 543, 579; Heyward v. Mayor, &c. of New York, 8 Barb. 486; Matter of Al bany St., 11 Wend. 149; Williamson v. and constitution of the place and people there," expresses himself thus: "What is the true extent of the power thus granted must be open to explanation as well by usage as by construction of the terms in which it is given. In a government professing to regard the great rights of personal liberty and of property, and which is required to legislate in subordination to the general laws of England, it would not lightly be presumed that the great principles of Magna Charta were to be disregarded, or that the estates of its subjects were liable to be taken away without trial, without notice, and without offence. Even if such authority could be deemed to have been confided by the charter to the General Assembly of Rhode Island, as an exercise of transcendental sovereignty before the Revolution, it can scarcely be imagined that that great event could have left the people of that State subjected to its uncontrolled and arbitrary exercise. That government can scarcely be deemed to be free, where the rights of property are left solely dependent upon the will of a legislative body, without any restraint. The fundamental maxims of a free government seem to require that the rights of personal liberty and private property should be held sacred. At least no court of justice in this country would be warranted in assuming that the power to violate and disregard them a power so repugnant to the common principles of justice and civil liberty lurked under any general grant of legislative authority, or ought to be implied from any general expressions of the will of the people. The people ought not to be presumed to part with rights so vital to their security and well-being, without very strong and direct expressions of such an intention." "We know of no case in which a legislative act, to` transfer the property of A. to B. without his consent has ever been held a constitutional exercise of legislative power in any State in the Union. On the contrary, it has been constantly resisted, as inconsistent with just principles, by every judicial tribunal in which it has been attempted to be enforced." The 282, the court held an act which divested a man of his freehold and passed it over to another, to be void as against common right as well as against Magna Charta." In Regents of University v. Williams, 9 Gill & J. 365; s. c. 31 Am. Dec. 72, it was said that an act was void as opposed to fundamental principles of right and justice inherent in the nature and spirit of the social compact. But the court had already decided that the act was opposed, not only to the constitution of the State, but to that of the United States also. See Mayor, &c. of Baltimore 1 Wilkinson v. Leland, 2 Pet. 627, 657. See also what is said by the same judge in Terrett v. Taylor, 9 Cranch, 43. "It is clear that statutes passed against plain and obvious principles of common right and common reason are absolutely null and void, so far as they are calculated to operate against those principles." Ham r. McClaws, 1 Bay, 98. But the question in that case was one of construction; whether the court should give to a statute a construction which would make it operate against common right and common reason. In Bowman ». Middleton, 1 Bay, " |