accuracy they do it. They will be obliged to draw upon nearly all the information they have thus far gained -climate, topography, rivers, coast, forest areas, mines, fisheries, etc.

Briefly, the five steps necessary in the teacher's preparation would be:

I. CONDITIONS.

Certain regions are densely populated.

Certain regions are thinly populated.

2. CAUSES.

Climate, topography, rivers, coast, forests, mines, fisheries, etc.

3. OLD KNOWLEDGE.

Same as 2.

4. NEW KNOWLEDGE. Certain characteristics in regard to dress, language and habits that cannot be inferred.

5. THE VERIFICATION.

A comparison of the results of the pupil's own judgment, with a map accurately prepared by the teacher. Further questioning to show in greater detail the working of the general laws which govern the distribution of population.

On an outline blackboard map or individual mimeograph maps, if they be available, the pupils are asked to mark with a cross the regions that they think would be thinly peopled. They are required to give reasons for their selections. The accompanying map (Fig. 7), made by a Fifth Year pupil without assistance, shows crosses on the tundras of the far north, the great forest areas, certain mountainous districts and the grazing lands.

The regions of densest population are next considered, together with certain characteristics resulting from natural causes. Thus a manufacturing population is to be expected where coal and iron abound. The pupils

mark these areas with parallel lines, giving reasons as before. In order that they may use systematically the fund of knowledge they have been storing up, the teacher assists their judgments by suggestive questioning,

as

Would many people live in a very cold climiate? On the tops of mountains?

Point out the grazing lands. Are there many or few people living on such lands? How can you tell?

What about forest regions? Contrast this with the probable population of a great wheat country.

What did we learn about coal and iron?

What of the population in such regions?

What other manufacturing districts would have a large population?

The density of a manufacturing population depends largely upon the means of available water communication and other topographical conditions, as absence of mountains. This fact is brought out by a comparison of the great manufacturing countries -England, Germany, France, Switzerland and Belgium. Lest the pupil should infer that these are the only causes of dense populations, he is reminded of the conditions prevalent in India and China. He must be made to realize, however, that in Europe these causes are vital.

Thus Russia and the peninsulas (except Italy and the coast of Spain) are found to be sparsely populated, while the United Kingdom and the rest of Europe, except the highest mountain districts, are thickly populated.

No attempt is made to compel the pupils to memorize the dress or habits of the various nationalities. Pictures on charts and in the text-books, and

reference to supplementary readers and books in the class library are considered sufficient.

Food is so largely influenced by climate and productions that a rapid review of these will suffice to fix such distributions as are considered typical, e.g., fish in the coast countries, dairy products in the farm countries, and vegetable and fruit diet of the Mediterranean countries. The production and consumption of meat and cereals must also be considered in their relation to foreign commerce.

Care should be exercised to avoid untrue inferences, which children are apt to make because of differences in dress. Thus, the dress of the Dutch fishermaiden, the Tyrolean mountaineer or the Highland piper indicates a superficial difference only. The pupils must realize that fundamentally the

people of Western Europe are much akin to ours-that there is no such gulf between them as between the American and the Oriental.

The languages of Europe are usually suggested by the nations and their names. Belgium, Switzerland and Austria are notable exceptions. Why these should be exceptions would require a knowledge of history quite beyond the pupil; if considered at all, the reason must be briefly told: what the varieties of language are should be inferred by inspection of the contiguous countries.

The teacher may prepare a list of the number of inhabitants per square mile for each country, and then compare with the United States. The tremendous emigration from overcrowded Europe to the United States is seen to be the following out of a natural

law. Other countries, as Canada, Australia and Argentine, to which there is a large emigration, are merely mentioned to avoid the erroneous inference that the United States is the only destination of Europe's surplus population.

Some questions that would form a part of the last step in the logical series are:

Why are there so many more people near the North Sea than in the same space of land in Russia?

Though Switzerland is very mountainous, it has a large population for its size. Why?

If Spain were level what difference would it make in climate? In population?

How does the lack of coal affect the industries of the Balkan peninsula? How does this affect population?

VIII.-Routes of travel and facilities for transportation and commerce; attention to trade with the United States.

While this section has a single purpose that of showing the effect of physical advantages or disadvantages on the development of transportation, and the consequent influence on the development of the people-it presents a variety of problems which require solution separately before we can arrive at any such generalization. Thus, we take up in turn the coast features, the rivers, the canals, the railroads and the articles of commerce, as conditions resulting from a number of different causes. In this way the pupils are able to point out the reasons for the development of a single country by mention of one or more of these factors; then they will be ready, finally, to understand why Europe as a whole leads in the commerce of the world.

In order to accomplish this end, it

will be necessary to indicate the nature of these minor problems. The "five logical steps" are so easily discernible that they will scarcely need to be given in detail. The pupils should examine the map once more, with a view to determining the relative coastal advantages of each country. Thus are compared the United Kingdom, Russia, France, Germany, Belgium, Holland, Italy and Spain with one another and with Austria, Switzerland and the Balkan peninsula. The question, "What countries lead in foreign commerce, and why?" will be readily answered. "How can you prove that countries having such advantages are using them?" anticipates somewhat by calling attention to the seaports. Just here it is well to remind the pupilsby a question-that the cities grouped around the German Ocean owe their presence also to the manufacturing possibilities afforded by the abundance

of coal and iron.

We have noticed that some countries lack coastal facilities. Yet they have large and important cities, the population of which must be supported by an interchange of food stuffs with manufactured goods or other articles of commerce.

This means that trade is carried on in some other way. Questions such as How can France trade with Switzerland and Austria? How can Germany trade with Russia, Switzerland, Austria and Italy? How can Russian cities trade with one another? will lead to the subject of rivers and railroads, and finally canals.

Let us take each in turn. From their study of rivers (Section V), the pupils should be able to give the characteristics of a river well adapted for transportation. They will themselves name as commercial highways the Volga, the Danube, the Rhine, the

Elbe, the Vistula, the Dnieper and the Don. The Thames and the Clyde should receive special treatment as types of broad estuaries near extensive coal fields-a combination which insures a large trade in manufactured articles. Again, "What proves that these rivers are being used?" will prepare the pupils for the important cities they must soon memorize, e.g., Paris, Lyons, Hamburg, Vienna, Kief, Glasgow and London.

In introducing the subject of canals, we might ask "Why are they built at all? What is the nature of the land where they can be easily built? What is the nature of the land where they are built with difficulty?" and, finally, "Where in Europe do you think they would naturally be cut? Give reasons." Inconsiderate answers, as "Across the Scandinavian peninsula," or "Across Europe from the North Sea to the Mediterranean," are corrected by mention of such insurmountable obstructions as huge mountain systems. The canal across Jutland and that connecting the Volga and the North Sea are usually selected correctly. In addition to these the teacher should tell the class about the Manchester Ship Canal, the canals in Holland and Belgium, the Corinth Ship Canal, and that around the falls that otherwise obstruct the lower course of the Danube. In each case the class should be required to supply the reason for their construction.

The two questions, "Where would you expect to find many railroads? Why?" and "Where would you expect to find few? Why?" should be sufficient for the class to mark on an outline map the respective regions of greatest and least railroad mileage. It is plain that in giving their reasons the pupils will make use of their knowledge of climate, topography, forest

areas, population, products, etc. Thus they will find a lack of railroads in extremely cold countries, in forest regions, and in many mountainous parts. When this map is complete it will be interesting to compare it with the population map and note that the regions of densest population are identical with those of greatest railroad mileage, and vice versa. (See Fig. 8.)

The difficulties that have been confronted in the building of the transAlpine railroads can easily be stated by the pupils. In explaining by what method they have been overcome, reference is briefly made to the great tunnels. Emphasis is placed on the importance of the tunnels in the development of manufacturing in Switzerland and on the commercial advantages they secure to the countries whose railroads pass through them. The special lines considered are the routes from London to Paris, from Paris to Constantinople and Moscow (on its way to the Pacific), and from London to Brindisi.

A study of the maps showing vegetation and animal and mineral resources, together with that showing the distribution of the population, will enable the pupils to tell with sufficient accuracy what products can be exported and what must be imported. The food products carried out of a country are shown to be a matter of quantity versus density of population —that is, among a progressive people. Thus Germany exports beet sugar, but not grains. The fact that Europe as a whole imports great quantities of food supplies is noted, and the reason established. This is followed by a comparison with the United States to show that we are the chief source of supply.

Exports to the United States are limited to manufactured goods. Three reasons account for this-I. Our

physical conditions, the locality of the product, other resulting industries, etc.—all applications of Step V.

In all of this discussion of traffic by river, rail and sea, and of imports and exports, the purpose is to lead the pupils to a broad concept of trade-domestic and foreign-and to the