streams and lakes being frozen for from ties for the exchange of products. The three to six months of the year. Nijni Novgorod is the great fur-trade center of European and Asiatic Russia. Though Russia is a raw-material producing country, manufacturing is steadily increasing. Wheat, flax, hemp, horse-hair for making haircloth, and bristles for making brushes, are exported; while iron and steel goods, machinery, and raw-cotton are imported. The large rivers are all navigable during the summer months. They are connected with each other and with the sea by canals and by a few lines of railroad. Annual fairs are held in different locali largest and most important are held at Nijni Novgorod, Kief, and Kharkov. Russia owns Siberia, which stretches. to the Pacific Ocean. The longest single line of railway in the world is completed from St. Petersburg to Vladivostock on the Pacific Coast. Russia is not as old in civilization as most of the other countries of Europe; hence there are fewer institutions of learning and the lower classes are poor and ignorant. St. Petersburg, which is connected with the sea by a canal, is the leading commercial port in the country. It was founded by Peter the Great in 1703, that the capital of the empire might be near the sea. Moscow, the old capital, is the leading commercial, industrial, and railway center. It is the publishing and book-making center of Russia. It also has the leading university of Russia. is the principal grain; beets, flax, hemp, and fruits are the chief farm products. There are many vineyards from whose product wines are manufactured. Bor deaux is the great wine-shipping port. lar to the pine Silk culture is an important indus try, and France leads the world in the manufacture of all kinds of silk goods. Locate Lyons, far-famed for its manufacture of silks, satins, and velvets. There are a great number of small manufactures in France, as those of dress and ornament, furniture, carriages, etc. Porcelain and glassware are also important manufactures. Locate Marseilles, the third city in France. It is an important and port has steamship communication with the principal Mediterranean ports and with Japan, China, and India. Locate Lisle, one of the leading linen-manufacturing cities in barrens of our own country. (Page 33.) Farming, cattle and sheep-raising, silk- Europe. What can you tell of Paris, the capital culture, manufacturing, and fishing are the principal occupations. On the great plains, or Landes, sheep-raising is an especially important industry. Wheat of France. (Page 173.) Railroads connect all cities with the coast and with other trade and industrial centers of Europe. ly. Flax, beets, and grains are the principal products. Linen and woolen goods are the chief manufactures. The people are much like those of France. SPAIN and PORTUGAL. Locate these two countries in the Spanish Peninsula. Tell what waters and what countries border each. From the relief map describe the surface. From the position and sea-coast of Spain and Portugal what climate would you expect to find? Spain is noted for its fruit products, which are produced on the coastal plains. Wines, olive oil, and raisins are the most important. Cork, from the cork-oak, is a valuable commercial product. SWITZERLAND. Locate this country. Tell in what surface region it lies. In what product section? What must the climate be? Locate the capital and the chief city. On the south ern slope all the products of the dif erent belts may be found as one ascends the mountains. Forests and pasture land constitute the greater part. Butter and cheese are exported. The Swiss are famed for their woodcarving. Great care has been given to hand-training, and these people are skilled in all kinds of handicraft. Swiss watches and clocks and Swiss embroideries are far-famed. How must the height of this plateau modify the warmth? The plateau is very dry, so that much of it has to be irrigated for cultivation. What part of our own country is similar in this respect? In what product belt do these countries lie? What are the products? Locate the capital of each country. Locate Barcelona and Oporto, the leading seaports. Locate Cartagena, Cadiz. Small farming for home consumption is the leading occupation. As a rule, the people of Spain are not progressive, and no occupation is pursued with any degree of energy. ITALY. Locate and tell what waters and land bound this country. What mountains on its northern and western borders? What mountains traverse it entire length? What plains are inclosed in the northern part? By what river are they drained? Locate the volcanoes Etna and Vesuvius. In what product region does Italy lie? What are some of the products? Name and locate the Milan and Turin are important industrial and railroad centers. Florence is noted for its art treasures and also for its straw-plaiting and silk manufacturing industries. Venice, a seaport of some importance, is built on more than a hundred islands. These islands were formed by the mountain waste which the rivers brought to the sea. Venice has many beautiful buildings which are built on piles and washed by the arms of the These arms and canals serve as streets and are traversed by boats called "gondolas." which cut through the Alps northward by the St. Gothard Tunnel and westward by the Mount Cenis Tunnel. Rome, in ancient times the capital of the Roman Empire, is noted for its many churches and its ruins of ancient greatness. It is a resort for artists, and is visited by travelers from nearly all parts of the world. For what else is Rome noted? (Page 173.) AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. Locate this country. Tell what countries and what waters border it. From the relief map tell what you can of its surface. What large river system drains it? Judging from location and elevation, what do you think of the climate? To what part of the United States is it similar? In what product sections does it lie? Judging from the surface, what must be the leading occupation? Locate Vienna, the capital and chief industrial and commercial center. Locate Buda-pest, Trieste, Prague, Lemberg, Cracow. Austria-Hungary, the second largest country in Europe, leads all other European countries in its mineral wealth. The more important minerals of this country are gold, silver, iron, and salt. Manufacturing is increasing in all sections, the principal manufactures at the present time being in the northwestern part, where Bohemian glass, paper, and cotton and woolen goods are made. Prague is the chief manufacturing and railroad center of this section. Prague is also the seat of the oldest university in Europe. Lumbering is an important industry, forests covering nearly a third of the surface of Austria-Hungary. Vienna is noted for its beautiful buildings, its art treas ures, and its institutions of learning. People come to this city from different parts of the world to study science, medicine, and music. Budapest is the trade center for the wheat and cattle products of the great plain. Flour-milling is the most important manufacturing industry. Cracow and Lemberg are important cities lying on the great eastern and western trade-route of Europe. Trieste is an important seaport on the Mediter ranean. Rivers, canals, and railways connect the cities of Austria-Hungary with other sections of Europe. |