deftly that, though it had been in his possession for years, Mr. Drew had not discovered it until one day recently when we were examining it together.

In this cave about twenty skeletons were founds. The skulls of some of them had been crushed, while others appeared to have died natural deaths, though the bones were so badly decayed that had fatal wounds been inflicted upon any part of the body than the head it could not have been discovered when we made our examination. These remains were scattered about the inner rooms in evidently the same position in which they had fallen from starvation or had been laid by the hands of their comrades after being stricken down by their foes. Around the bony necks were found the amulets and on the wrists the shell bracelets that protected them from evil or served them as ornaments during life.

The structure was built altogether different from the fortresses of Zuni and Acoma, neither does it resemble any of the Pueblo buildings in New Mexico. Judging from the mass of cement scattered about on the cliff, these walls must have been once fully six stories in height and the buildings almost as large as the Casa Grande in the Gila River Valley.-San Francisco Chronicle.

ROCK SHELTERS IN NEW ENGLAND.

BY CHARLES A. PERKINS.

The rock shelters, two in number, were discovered by the late Mr. A. H. Kingman, of this place. He examined them very thoroughly and took everything of value. Before his death I photographed the shelters and contents, getting some very fine views. Mr. K. also gave me all the information in regard to them that he could. I have since visited them several times. I gave to Prof. F. W. Putnam a set of the views for the P. A. of S. at Cambridge. There is another cave in the next town (Peabody) that Mr. K. found, but which has never been dug over yet, though a slight digging with a stick showed fragments of shells. Twice Mr. K. and I tried to dig, but the ground was frozen too hard. Another large cave in Waltham, Massachusetts, finely located, failed to show anything. Still another, in Melrose, Massachusetts, is unexplored, owing to the hostility of the owners, though Mr. K. got a semi-luna knife. His fine collection was left to his young daughter. Wakefield, Massachusetts.

THE STUDY OF THE MAPS.

BY STEPHEN D. PEET.

One of the most interesting and instructive exercises for the student of American history is to take the maps which were published during the period of Discovery and exploration, and follow up the growth and development of the knowledge of the geography of the continent. This study, to be sure, brings to view the strange ignorance which prevailed in reference to the continent and shows the false ideas and the tenacity with which they were held, but it also illustrates the progress of discovery and the gradual correction of errors, and the final establishment of the truth as to the physical characteristics of the country, both of its coast lines and its interior. Still further, it brings to mind the acquaintance which was formed with the tribes then occupying the different parts of the country and their locations and conditions.

The names of the continent and its prominent features, rivers, mountains and capes, were those which were given by the discoverers and explorers, and many of them exhibit their nationality or place of nativity. But as time went on the names of the various tribes became known, and these were written down on the maps, showing the various localities where these tribes were living. We must, then, regard the maps as the earliest and best guides to a knowledge of the natives, and may well take them as exhibiting the "Footprints of the Aborigines" which may be recognized. We have taken, then, this as our subject. We shall begin with the maps which bring the continent to view, making a brief summary of these. We shall next take the series which presents the outlines of the continents in their varying and progressive changes. We shall next take the maps which open the interior and give us the names of the tribes which first became known. Lastly, we shall take the maps in which the various rivers are laid down-the Ohio, the Mississippi and the rivers of the west, making this our limit for the present. Our effort will be all the way through to present the aboriginal side of the subject, as the American or European side has been frequently brought out by the geographers and does not need further elucidation.

I. It will be remembered that India was the continent which was sought after when the great navigator and discoverer, Columbus, made his first voyage. It was his idea that he had discovered India that led him to give the name of Indians to the aborigines,

a name which has never been changed. The mistake of Columbus was perhaps a natural one, though it is a mystery why the islands in the Atlantic should be called West Indies when those of the Pacific are East Indies, for certainly they are further west and were really reached last. The name is confusing. The Hindus are Indians and the native Americans are Indians, so we shall need to draw the line by some other means, and therefore may well take the various tokens which are left and show the contrasts between them.

It also reveals the many changes which occurred among the native tribes and the remarkable effects which were produced by the advent of the white man. These changes may not all have been owing to the presence of the whites, but they at least became known and were put on record by the geographers and by the historians, so that we have brought before us a history as well as a geography which is very suggestive.

The most of the maps are, to be sure, very imperfect and the information vague and indefinite, yet they aid us to penetrate the obscurity which seems to have gathered, like a fog-bank, between the historic and the prehistoric periods. The earlier geographers were occupied with the physical peculiarities of the continent and made it their chief aim to describe these, but the later made an effort to give the names and locations of the tribes as they became known. We shall find, then, in the maps, and especially in those of the Interior, a record which may well engage our attention, for in them we may recognize "Footprints" which are unmistakable and enduring. We propose, then, to devote this paper to a description of the various maps which are in existence, with the view of ascertaining the locations of the various tribes during this period.

Let us then take the maps which were issued immediately after the discovery, and which gave the outlines of the continent, with the physical features laid down as they were understood at the time. It will be noticed that various names were placed upon these maps, but they were names which were borrowed from the European languages-French, German, Spanish and English— and show the nationality of the discoverers. There are very few Indian names on them, and they are names which can hardly be identified with any of the Indian tribes.

Commencing with the map of the North Atlantic by Antonio Zeno in the year 1400, we trace Iceland, Greenland, Frisland.* Next, taking the globe of Martin Beham, 1492, we find the islands in the ocean between Western Europe and ancient Asia,

*The first map, Justin Winsor says, is the one which brings out the names of Greenland and Iceland. It was found by Baron Nordenskjold attached to a Ptolemy codex at Nancy. The large map of Iceland as it was A. D. 1000 is given by Rafn. Another map, which refers to the Norse discoveries, might be mentioned, but they are not essential. Mr. Justin Winsor has given them in his book. These maps do not show any familiarity with the continent as such, though they may have furnished a basis on which Columbus built up his theory as to the continent.

such as the Canary Islands, the Antilles, Azores and the island of Java, but no continent of America. In the map of the east coast of North America by Juan de la Cosa we find Cuba, La Espanola and the outline of the coasts, but with very few points which can be identified. In a chart of the New World by Johann Ruysch, 1508, America is a large island, with a large body of water to the north of it and the Asiatic coast to the west, and the island of Java, the Cape Verde and the Azores to the north. On the globe of Johann Schoner, 1520, America is still an island, but Cuba, Isabella, Spagnoria are small islands north of it, with Asia farther removed to the west, but North America is not on the map. In the map of Peter Martyr, 1511, the American coast has stretched out to the east and north, and appears to surround the island of Cuba and Espanola, but Asia is dismissed from view. In a Portuguese map, 1520, the coast of America is drawn in a fragmentary manner. A land called Terra Binami lies to the north of Cuba, Labrador to the northeast. In a map of the world in Ptolemy, Basale, 1530, America is an island, but it stretches around Cuba, Jamaica, etc., and contains a gulf (the Gulf of Mexico), Terra Florida, Cape Britonum, with the large letters Nova Francisca across the whole continent, while India and Cathay are west of this island. On two maps in 1543, one a French map of the world and the other by M. Vallard de Dieppe, the coast from Florida to the Gulf of St. Lawrence is laid down with considerable correctness; the large letters La Florida across the Carolinas, Ter des Bretons across New England, Ochelaga and Canada north of the St. Lawrence. In this map appears a river; the river is called the Archipel de Estienne Gomez. In a map by the Italian, Jacomo di Gastildi, 1550, Labrador appears and the whole east coast of North America is laid down, but an island bearing the name Tierra de Norumberg seems to occupy the place of New England, with Cape Breton on the southeast point. The same is repeated by Ruscelli, 1561; the words La Florida appear in large letters in their proper place. In a map by Michael Locke, 1582, Norumbega is an island, with Grand Bay to the north and Hochelaga to the west of it. In this map the ocean flows in to the west of the New England States and to the north of Florida, but the coast from Norumbega to Florida is tolerably correct. The names Jac Cartier, 1555, J. Gabot, 1497, appear on the island Norumbega; Cortereal on the main land north, and Angli, 1576, on an island in Hudson's Bay. From these last three maps we learn that the name Norumbega has become very prominent, but instead of being descriptive of a local fort or river was ascribed to the whole coast; in fact, was the name by which a part of North America was known. From this we conclude that the name Nurumbega was applied to all New England. In the map by Mercator, 1590, Nurumbega is no longer an island, but is the main land and extends to 39° of

latitude. The same is the case in the map by John Bleau, 1642. In a map by Hondius, 1619, the territorial name, in large caps, Nurembega has given place to Nova Francia, and Nurembega is a local name, situated somewhere in the vicinity of Cape Cod. In a map by Mercator, earlier than this, 1569, the east coast of North America appears with La Florida in its proper place, Apalchian covering the region about Virginia, and Nurumbega, in large letters, covers the whole of New England, and Nurumbega, small letters, designates a place on a river, probably Charles River. Nova Francia is a district north of the St. Lawrence River, which is laid down with completeness. The Hudson River does not appear up to this date, but the Charles River flows south and is frequently in such a location as to be regarded as correct. After this date the maps become more specific in detail, but it is doubtful whether anything can be ascertained from those which preceded them which can be relied upon as descriptive of the local geography surrounding any one place. The map of Boston, in a general way, precedes that of New York by many years. The Charles River appears a long time before the Hudson, but the names are too indefinite and uncertain to identify them with definite points.

II. Let us now turn to the maps of the Interior, and study these with the especial view of tracing out the names of the Indian tribes and their locations.*

Mr. C. C. Baldwin, of Cleveland, has been for many years engaged in gathering maps of the West. He has now in possession probably the largest collection of the kind in the world. There are other very extensive collections; those in the library of Harvard College, in the State Library at Albany, and those which have been gathered by the Geographical Society at New York being in other respects much more valuable; but for the one object of illustrating the interior of the continent of North America, this collection is well nigh complete.

The maps are now at the residence of Mr. Baldwin, and in the library of the Northern Ohio Historical Society, of which he was the secretary. They exist in a great variety of shapes and bear many different dates, but comprise nearly all the early maps of the interior ever published. Some of them are found in books, either in large folios or in quartos, in 12 mos., or in small 16 mos., such as books of travels, of voyages, of early discoveries, or in early geographies and histories. Others are found in map form, either as large wall maps or as single sheets.

There are also a few tracings or copies of maps which cannot be secured, and the collector is now negotiating for the purchase

*This subject has been followed by Mr. Justin Winsor and a great deal of valuable information has been furnished, but he seems to write from the white man's standpoint and does not make any especial effort to describe the Footprints of the Aborigines. We would say still further that the greater part of this chapter was written in 1876 and so precede d Mr. Winsor's book by some ten or fifteen years. It is reproduced here with a few changes.