visionary writers, and especially because they have wrought so much confusion into the archæology of this country as to what constitutes the real tokens of the aborigines, and what belonged to the white man. It may be said that the theories have had the effect to lead people astray in reference to nearly everything that is aboriginal, and have brought in the greatest errors in reference to the various relics which have been discovered. Dighton rock, which is a genuine aboriginal pictograph, has been made to contain the record of the Norseman, the pictures of boats containing Norsemen and Runic lines having been recognizedin it. At one time an attempt was made to move the rock to Boston as a monument of the Norsemen. The skeleton of the Indian chief which was discovered in New England covered with copper beads and relics is represented as some great knight errant or some great Norse sea king whose skeleton was in armor. Still further the old mill which stands near Providence, and represents the style of building mills which prevailed in England quite late in history, has been regarded as a tower erected by Norsemen and much sentiment has been expended upon it. Some hold that silver sword scabbards have been found in mounds, and take these as proof of the presence of the white man. The many fraudulent relics which have appeared at different times and in many parts of the country, have under the influence of this theory been accepted as genuine, especially those which have inscriptions upon them or letters which can be in any way made to resemble the Hebrew alphabet, the Newark stone, the stone from Grave Creek mound, the Davenport tablet being the most notable*.

II. Still there are actual records of discovery given by the Norsemen which we may regard as formations of history†. These descriptions are contained in the Sagas, which have come down from the time of 1000 A. D. and are very important, for they are the first which were ever given. They also bring out the picture of the aborigines as they were 500 years before the time of Columbus. It matters not where the scene is to be located, whether upon the coast of Labrador or the coast of New England, Narragansett Bay, or Massachusetts Bay, the view of the aborigines. will be the same.‡

The Spanish claim St. Augustine and Sante Fe as the earliest cities built upon the continent, the French claim Montreal, Detroit, Mackinac, Green Bay, LaPointe, as the places where their first missions were established; but the Scandinavians have as good reason for looking to the coast of New England as the place

*The Davenport tablet is interpreted as containing a story of the flood and even the figures of Noah and his family are pointed out.

Here we would acknowledge our indebtedness to Prof. R. N. Horsford.

Winsor gives a section of a map from Rafn's Antiquitates Americana. giving his dentification of the Norse localitles. This and the other map by Rafn is produced in his Cabinet d'Antiquites Americaines.

where the Norsemen first landed. We should be therefore grateful to those gentlemen who have given so much time and attention to the examination of the various localities and have made geography and history to come together. We can pardon a few mistakes in the carrying out of the details. It is fortunate that men of wealth are willing to lay out their money in commemorating the events of the past. The efforts of Mr. Horsford are worthy of commendation, for he has not only erected a monument but has furnished a book. In the book there are a great many facts which are worthy of study.

The monument which stands in the village of Watertown, near Boston, commemorates the exploits of the early Norsemen very much as the monument which is to be erected at St. Ignace in Michigan commemorates the voyages of the early missionary, Marquette, and the monument near Pullman commemorates the massacre at Chicago in 1812. There is an object lesson in each monument and an inspiration which comes from commemorating the events of the past. The local pride which may be aroused both at the west and the east is after all very helpful, for it brings us together as a nation, while it carries us back to the foundations which were laid by the different European nationalties.

Quotations from the Sagas are before us. These are a small but important body of Icelandic literature which has come down to us from the period of the events narrated. They are in fact traditions, which were held for a long time in memory, as it was the habit of the people to perpetuate them by frequent recitations and make them a system of education and sometimes of professional service. They were by this system transmitted from sire and matron to son and daughter, as they were the fireside entertainment for a series of generations. After the introduction of the art of writing these traditions were transferred to parchment, but when transferred they preserved their peculiar oral characThe trustworthiness of the Sagas, though relating to events said to have occurred 900 years ago should not be called in question, for they form a collection of recorded realities in the history of an ancient people, which corresponds in its style with the character of the times. They have been accepted as in a sense historical by scholarly men.† Of course the Sagas were not scientific productions, and are defective in their geographical character, as there is no latitude and longitude and distance mentioned. Still they furnish material which may be regarded as valuable in making up the geography of the coast of America.‡

Respecting the Sagas, Laing says it does not appear that any Saga manuscript has been written before the fourteenth century. Dr. Rink says that they exist only in a frag mentary condition, and they stand in need of being corroborated by collateral proofs, if we have to rely upon them in such a question as an ancient colonization of America.

The geographers Kohl, Rafn, Magnussen, Konrad, Maurer, Worsaae, J. Elliot Cabot. B. F. DeCosta, Nordenskjold.

Winsor has given in his Narrative and Critical History many pages to a review of the pre-Columbian explorations, especially those conducted by Norsemen. His notes and references are especially valuable.

The existence of a Vineland of spontaneous corn and of vines in the distant western ocean seems to have been known in Denmark long before the celebrated expeditions of the Norsemen, soon after the settlement in Iceland, about the year 1070. The Prelate Adam of Bremen gave to the world his conversation with the king of Denmark a few years before. Referring to the region beyond Greenland, the king said: "An island lying in that ocean had been visited by many. It was called Vineland because grapes making excellent wine grow there spontaneously, and cereals without planting." It wes at the least some three hundred years later that the Vineland sagas were written down. In these there are substantially only four Vineland stories-Bjarni's, Leif's, Thorwald's and Thorfinn'sand they all revolve about the landfall of Leif and the site of his houses in Vineland.

THE STORY OF BJARNI,

Bjarni, a Norwegian supercargo, who, on a voyage in 985 from Iceland to Greenland, had been driven he knew not whither in a violent northeast storm, accompanied by fog and rain, for many days, found himself as the sky cleared, off a wooded projection of a coast, without mountains, but having here and there little hillocks in the interior. He did not land, as the country did not look like Greenland. They left the country on the larboard and let the stern of the ship look landward, and they sailed two days, when they saw another country; but this was not Greenland, for it was level and wooded, for great glaciers are said to be in Greenland. He again turned the prow from land and sailed three days and saw the third country, which was high and mountainous. Once more they put the ship about and sailed four days, and then saw the fourth country. This was Greenland.

THE STORY OF LEIF ERIKSON.

a

Leif Erikson, who was a relative, having heard Bjarni's story, sailed to Greenland and bought his ship and engaged a crew, thirty-five in all, and set out to discover the land which had been described. He takes the points in their reverse order. At the first point he stepped ashore and gave name, calling it Helluland-flat-rock land. At the second point, they cast anchor, put out a boat and walked ashore. The country was level and wooded, with white sand in many places. Then Leif said: "This country shall be named according to its qualities, Markland. They sailed se award for two days with a northeasterly wind. They came to an island ying north of the mainland and looked about in fine weather. They sailed into the sound between the island and the ness or cape which jutted out north of the mainland, and steered westward past the ness. There great shallows extended at ebb-tide, and their ship stood aground, and it appeared far from the vessel to the sea, but so eager were they to go ashore that they could not wait until the sea should return to their ship. But when the tide returned to their ship, then they took the boat and rowed to the ship, but it moved (floated) up into the river and then into the lake. There they cast anchor and carried their leathern hammocks ashore, and made booths there. They then decided to dwell there during the winter, and erected there a large building. But the quality of the country was so good according to what it seemed to them that livestock would not need provender in winter. No frosts came there during the winter, and herbage withered there but little. Day and night were there more even than in Greenland or Iceland. The discovery of grapes and wine wood took place about this time. It is said that after the ship's boat had beed loaded with grapes, a cargo (of wood) was cut for the ship. There were also fields of wheat growing wild,

and certain trees called Mosur." Some of the trees were used for building timber. "Leif named this country after its good qualities, Vineland."

THE STORY OF THORWALD.

The next summer Thorwald, with a portion of his company, in the great ship, coasted along the eastern shore. They were driven against a neck of land and the keel was broken off. Then said Thorwald to his companions: "Let us fix up the old keel on this neck of land, and call this place Kjlarness" (Cape of the Keel). Having done as he desired, they sailed along the coast, leaving that neck to the eastward. Thorwald and his companions went on shore, and then said Thorwald: "This is a pleasant place. I should like to fix my habitation here." They then walked to the ship, and saw on the sands three hillocks, and going hither they saw three skin-boats and under each three men. They then divided their forces and seized them all except one, who escaped with his boat. They killed eight, and then walked back to the cape and saw towards the inner part of the bay several hillocks which they supposed to be dwellings. Here they all fell asleep, but a cry broke upon their ears and they all awoke. Then from the inner part of the bay countless skin-boats appeared and bore down upon them. Then said Thorwald: "Let us advance the battle-covers to the gunwale and defend ourselves as best we may, but not attack them." But the Skraelings shot upon them awhile, and then fled each as best he could. An arrow flew between the gunwale and the shield and lodged in Thorwald's armpit and caused his death. He commanded that he should be buried upon the headland, a cross placed at his head and another at his feet, and the place be called Krossaness, or Cape of Crosses. Here, then, we have the first record of the meeting with the natives.

THORFINN KARLSEFNI'S EXPEDITION TO VINELAND.

Thorfinn Karlsefni was a very wealthy man. He came from Norway to Greenland, and paid attention to Gudrid, the sister of Leif Erikson. The people urged him to go to Vineland. He, with a crew of sixty men and five women, embarked and took with them all kinds of livestock, for they intended to settle the country. They arrived safe and sound at Leif's booths and carried their leathern hammocks ashore there. They remained here for awhile, but afterwards Thorfinn made an expedition southeastward with two vessels. He went out to Cape Kjlarness and went southward. At length they came to where the shore was indented with coves. They sent two Scotch servants to run three days to the southwest. On their return one brought a bunch of grapes and the other a white ear of corn. They sailed along until they came to a river flowing out from the land through a lake into the sea. Here there were sandy shoals, which it was impossible to pass up except with the tide. Karlsefni sailed up to the mouth of the river with his folk, and called the place Hop. Having come to the land, they saw that where the ground was low corn grew, and where it was higher, vines were found. Every river was full of fish. There were great numbers of all kinds of wild beasts in the woods, and early one morning, when they looked around, they saw a great many skin-boats (birch-bark canoes), and poles were swung upon them, and it sounded like reeds shaken by the wind, and they pointed to the sun. They stayed there for a time and gazed upon those they met, and afterwards rowed away southward around the ness. Afterward, under Thorfinn's direction, the men felled timber. The vines, which ran to high trees, were cut down in order to gather the grapes. After the first winter, one morning they saw from Leif's houses nine canoes coming down the river. "The men in the canoes were small of stature, fierce of expression, swarthy, with ugly hair, great eyes and broad cheeks." They remained some time wondering at the newcomers In the spring Thorwald ordered the vessel to be rigged, and that some men should proceed in the long-boat westward along the coast and .explore it during the summer. They thought the country beautiful and well wooded, the distance small between the forest and the strand full of white sand. There also many islands and very shallow water. They found