teachers and trustees. It is desirable, however, that uniformity be secured by law; at least in each district.

FINANCIAL EMBARRASSMENT.

The most unpleasant feature connected with the school operations for the year was the great deficiency of funds, or rather delay in the receipt of the funds. This deficiency amounted at the close of the year to more than $1,000,000. As a result, teachers were compelled, either to wait for weeks or months not knowing when their claims would be paid, or else to sell them at a heavy discount,-from 5 to 50 per cent. This was a heavy drain upon a class poorly paid at best, and who, as a rule, were dependent upon their salaries for a support, and therefore could ill afford either to hold their claims or to have them discounted.

The causes assigned for this deficiency were as follows:

(1) The annual apportionment is required by law to be made about the middle of July for the scholastic year beginning September 1, not of money already in the treasury, but of money which is expected to be received during the year, and which, therefore, must necessarily be a very uncertain quantity. The receipts from one source especially from school lands-is an exceedingly variable one.

(2) Only a small portion of the available school fund is received before December, three months after the beginning of the school year.

(3) County collectors are allowed either to pay over the school tax to the county treasurer or to remit it to the State treasurer. The amount of school money collected in some counties far exceeds their apportionment, and consequently, if it were in the hands of the State treasurer, the excess could be used in paying the claims in other counties where the school receipts are less than the apportionments.

(4) The postponement of the collection of the interest on land sales from January 1 to August 1 is partly responsible for the deficiency.

(5) There was no cash balance to the credit of the schools in the treasury at the beginning of the scholastic term.

(6) The receipts from school lands for the last two years were less than in previous years.

Superintendent Cooper recommends as a remedy for the financial difficulty either a loan from the general State revenue, which was considerably in excess of the immediate necessities of the State government, or else a direct appropriation from the State funds.

DEFECTS OF THE SYSTEM.

I. One of the greatest defects in the operation of the school system of the State is the careless and unbusinesslike management of the school funds. This is shown by the discrepancies in the annual reports of the county treasurers and by the conflicting statements in the reports of the county treasurers and county judges. The amount brought forward on the books of the county treasurer at the beginning of the school year, September 1, should correspond exactly with the amount carried forward the day before, August 31, the close of the last school year. But instead of being the same, it will be found different in eighty-one counties. In some counties this difference is quite large, and for all the counties it aggregates about $75,000. The amount paid to teachers, according to the county treasurers' reports, is found to differ by $30,000 from the same amount as reported by the county judges.

The State holds no vouchers whatever to show what has become of the school funds, except that so much has been paid to each county treasurer. The county treasurers have practically no check whatever. They are not required by law to report to any one. In many cases in which their attention was called to the discrepancies in their reports, they either gave the matter no attention or else failed to give a satisfactory explanation of it.

Superintendent Cooper suggests three methods by which the disbursements of the public funds could be guarded more effectively.

(1) The State superintendent might be required to inspect annually the records of each local disbursing officer, either personally or through inspectors appointed to assist him in the work.

(2) All disbursements might be made directly from the State treasury. This plan, however, would necessitate delay and some expense.

(3) The third method is that the county superintendent or judge, at the beginning of each month, send to the Department of Education an estimate of the amount needed for that month, when the money will be forwarded to him, and at the end of the month forward the vouchers of the money paid out.

II. The second defect is want of proper supervision. The town and city schools already have efficient supervision, but the county schools, which need it most and could be most improved by it, have practically no supervision at all. It is one of the duties of the county judges to visit the schools, but only three judges in the entire State vis

ited all the schools in their division during the year; and, even when the duty is performed, it is done in the most perfunctory manner, so that no improvement results from it. It is to be hoped, however, that the legislation already made on this subject will correct this evil.

III. The third defect is lack of uniformity. There are four methods of organization in the county schools, four methods in the city schools, and four methods of taking the scholastic census. As a consequence, endless confusion and mismanagement have resalted, each officer depending upon the other for a performance of the duties.

COMMUNITY PLAN.

This is a feature of the school system peculiar to Texas, and a very objectionable feature it is. In the first place, the community has no definite geographical limits, the prime requisite of a school district. It can not elect its own trustees, and has no power to vote local taxes. It has no permanency about it, but is continually shifting from place to place with the population, and may entirely cease to exist. It has a tendency to foment local strifes and sectarian feelings, which result in the establishment of a number of weak and inefficient schools, where only one strong, progresssive school should be maintained.

GENERAL SUMMARY.

The

Although we find many defects in the operation of the school system of the State, they are only defects in management and can easily be corrected, so that there is every reason for expecting great progress in educational matters. Says Superintendent Cooper: "Texas has some of the elements of one of the strongest free-school systems in the world. The endowment, in bonds and land notes, is already over $15,000,000. Linded endowment of the schools, if wisely managed, will yield early in the twentieth century $100,000,000. There are nearly half a million children, taught by more than 10,000 teachers, enrolled in the schools during the present year. The State is rapidly advancing in wealth, population, and intelligence. No single element in the life of the people will conduce more to the progress of the State than an efficient system of public free schools."

UTAH.

Reference is made to the Index for the statistical and other information contained in this Report concerning education in Utah.

VERMONT.

NEW LEGISLATION.

Failure to execute compulsory attendance law.―Sheriffs and prudential committees neg lecting to execute the provisions of the compulsory attendance law, after a demand made upon them to do so, become liable to a fine not exceeding $20.

Return to district system.-A town having abolished its school district system in pursuance of law, may at any second annual town meeting thereafter abolish its town system.

Holidays.-No teacher in any public school shall be required to teach on any legal holiday, nor be subject to any deduction of pay for not teaching.

Tar for school-houses.-If a district neglects to provide a suitable school-house after an order by the selectmen, the selectmen may provide such school-house and assess a tax apon the district therefor.

Report of town superintendent.—Each town superintendent of schools shall at the close of his term of office make a detailed account of his services, stating the date, time spent, and kind of service, and the number of districts in which a school has been taught during the year; but he shall receive no money for his services until he has made to the State superintendent the statistical returns required by law.

Kindergartens.-Towns and school districts may at any meeting vote to establish or pay the expenses of kindergarten schools.

Amended law relating to temperance instruction.-Instruction shall be given to all pupils in all public schools as to the nature of alcoholic drinks and narcotics, and their effect upon the human system. Such subjects shall be taught as thoroughly as arithmetic and geography, and given orally to pupils not able to read; those able to read shall be taught by text-books, of which at least one-fourth of their space, or twenty pages, shall be given to these subjects.

Each teacher of a public school shall be required to certify that such instruction has bea given in the school or grade presided over by him or her, before receiving any pay.

Text-books required for this instruction shall be furnished to the scholars at the expense of the State; such books shall be selected by a board of three persons appointed by the Governor.

For other information concerning education in Vermont contained in this Report consult the Index.

VIRGINIA.

[From Report of State Superintendent John L. Buchanan for 1886-87.]

In all the essential elements of growth, so far as they can be indicated by statistics, the school system of Virginia has reached this year the highest stage of development thus far recorded during the seventeen years of its history. More money has been appropriated and expended, more schools opened, more teachers employed, more pupils enrolled and in average attendance, than during any preceding year, and also a smaller aggregate amount due teachers at the close of the year than for the past ten years. The information derived from observation and the reports of school officers also indicate an advance all along the line.

NUMBER OF SCHOOLS.

The total number of schools in operation during the year 1887 is 7,140; in 1886 it was 6,763; increase, 377. This is regarded as a very gratifying and encouraging exhibit, and is due to the larger amount of money provided for the schools, the activity and fidelity of school officers and teachers, and the larger measure of encouragement and moral support accorded the system by the people.

When, however, it is considered that only about 30 per cent. of the State school population (5 to 21 years) is in average daily attendance upon the common schools, it is quite evident that there is not a suficient number of schools to meet the educational wants of the people. The number of pupils attending private schools does not amount to 5 per cent. of the State school population. Therefore, for education in the common school branches, at least, the children of the State are dependent mainly upon the put lic free schools; and hence the only wise course to pursue is to extend their advantages as widely as possible. To bring the public schools within the reach of all, however, is a difììcult matter.

DISTRICTS WITH SPARSE POPULATION.

There are portions of the State which are but sparsely inhabited. In some sections there is not a suflicient number of families residing within convenient distance of any one point to furnish the requisite number of pu, ils for a legal school, and hence they are practically without schools. In other neighborhoods families residing on the borders of districts are at too great a distance from the schools to patronize them.

Again, as the population consists of both white and colored people, there are not a few districts in which there are enough of children of one race to form a school, and not enough of the other, and, hence, some for this reason are without schools. How to remedy these evils, how to supply these deficiencies, is a perplexing question.

FORMATION OF SCHOOL DISTRICTS.

It has been suggested that each magisterial district be divided into a number of school districts, containing approximately the same number of persons of school age (about 85), and receiving a proportionate share of the school funds. The principle herein involved is undoubtedly correct, but its practical application is attended with great difficulty. There is already in force a law which aims to effect this object, but it is permissive rather than mandatory, and for some reason has not met with much favor.

Some sort of subdivision into school districts does and ought to prevail, but to so subdivide that the same, or about the same, number of persons of school age would be contained in each district would be a difficult, though perhaps not an impossible, undertaking. But supposing such a subdivision to be made, it could not, of course, render scattered communities more compact, and could not, therefore, obviate the inconveniences above recognized. It would doubtless result in a dimin shed attendance upon some of the schools in sparsely settled districts. It would also necessitate a change in the location of a good many school-houses. School districts containing each the same number of persons of school age would vary largely in area on account of the varying density of population in different sections of the country. Hence, in many instances, pupils would be cut off by the proposed district lines from the schools which they have been attending. Furthermore, a kind of double subdivision into school districts would be necessary in order to accommodate both the white and colore i races. This necessity, it will be observed, constitutes a most troublesome factor in the problem, for each school district of 85 pupils is entitled to but one school of the usual length of the school term. If,

then, a part of the 85 pupils are white and a part colored-separate schools being required for the two races-the one part or the other must go without a school. To obviate this difficulty, there must needs be one set of school districts for white children and another set for colored. Again, if the school districts should be so arranged as to contain, even approximately, the same number of persons of school age, a good many fractional parts of districts would be left which it would be hard to properly dispose of.

Such are among the difficulties which would attend the effort to subdivide into school districts in the manner above indicated, and there are, therefore, good reasons for apprehending that such a scheme would hardly prove practicable, at least, for the present. Possibly some other scheme of subdivision might be devised. But any scheme which would not require an approximately equal number of persons of school age in the several school districts could not furnish a basis for an equitable distribution of school fands, and would therefore be liable to the same objections as are conceived to lie against the present system.

Under existing laws, boards of district school trustees, with the advice and counsel of the superintendents of schools, determine where and how many schools shall be opened in each magisterial district. As a rule, they have gone to the limit of the funds at their command, and in not a few instances have opened schools in which the average attendance has proved so small and irregular as to necessitate their suspension. But still complaints reach the central office that some neighborhoods and some families are without school facilities, and in some instances that citizens who have been paying school taxes ever since the inauguration of the system have rarely, if ever, had the opportunity of sending to a public school.

NUMBER OF TEACHERS.

The number of white male teachers in 1886-87, as compared with 1879-80, stands as follows:

These figures show a large increase in the past eight years in the number of female teachers. At the same rate of increase the schools of Virginia in a few years will be pretty largely in the hands of female teachers.

SALARIES OF TEACHERS.

Superintendent Buchanan calls attention to the circumstance that the wages of teachers are too low, the average annual salary for the State being $173.46.

In many rural districts the school term is not over twenty weeks (five months), and the monthly salary as low as $20 or $25, thus giving an annual salary of $100 or $125. For good teachers such salaries are far too small. But while it may be, and doubtless is true that some teachers on small salaries are doing better work than others who receive twice as much, yet it can not be doubted that an increase of salaries would increase the efficiency of the teaching force. The laborer is worthy of his hire.

But there is no possible way of increasing salaries without more money. If the number of schools were diminished, more money could go to those that would be continued. But this would greatly increase the complaint about the lack of school facilities. It has been suggested that one teacher could teach two schools in a year-a five-month fall term in one place and a five-month spring term in another, and thus be occapied twice as long and receive twice as much pay. The objection to this is the difficulty of securing the attendance of pupils. The first school would begin by the 1st of August; the last one continue till the 1st of June. During a large part of each term the children in many places would be kept at home for work. If this objection could be obviated, the superintendent sees no reason why a system of alternating schools might not work well.

it may be remarked that "ambulatory" schools have recently been abolished in Georgia. See page 127.)

Suitable legislation is recommended to secure the prompt payment of teachers' salaries. As few monthly school warrants have passed through the hands of shavers this year as formerly; perhaps less. In many counties teachers have been paid with reasonable promptness. But there ought to be no occasion for discounting any school warrant.

The laws and regulations making the salaries of teachers in certain cases depend upon average attendance are cited, and the arguments pro and con as to the advantages of this system are given somewhat in detail. In summing up Superintendent Buchanan doubts whether it would be expedient to withdraw this matter from the control of the board These arguments are quoted in another part of this Report. See Index under head of "Teach

of education and make it a subject of special legislative enactment. The law authoriz ing the board to prescribe the minimum number of pupils required to form a public school, is necessary to guard against a wasteful or useless expenditure of public school funds. A different policy in some of the States has worked badly. One annual school report, at least, noted the existence of schools with an average attendance of less than half a dozen pupils, and recommended prompt measures to correct the evil. While all proper effort ought to be made to guard against injudicious or useless expenditure of the public school funds, it would be both just and expedient to make such modifications of, or additions to, existing regulations as will tend to more carefully guard the interests of teachers, and support and encourage them in the discharge of their responsible duties.

PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE.

The enactment of a law is recommended placing physiology and hygiene on the list of subjects required to be taught in the public schools.

SENTIMENT IN RESPECT TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS.

Of the county superintendents reporting to the central office the state of public sentiment regarding public schools, 99 report favorably, 11 report an improvement, and 4 report some opposition.

NEW LEGISLATION.

[From the Educational Journal of Virginia.]

School trustee electoral boards.-Under an Act of the General Assembly, in force February 20, 1884, the appointment of district school trustees was vested in county school electoral boards, composed of 3 citizens of each county, elected by the General Assembly. This law has been repealed, and the old law, providing that the county judge, Commonwealth's attorney, and county superintendent of schools shall constitute the school trustee electoral board of each county, with power to appoint and remove trustees, has been re-enacted.

Virginia Normal and Collegiate Institute, summer sessions.—Under the former law the summer session was fixed at 8 weeks, and county superintendents were required to revoke the license of any colored teacher in the public schools who failed "to attend one session, or any part of said summer course for 3 consecutive school years," unless such teacher was excused by the board of education. The present act reduces the length of the session to 5 weeks, and relieves the teacher of the severe penalty imposed for non-attendance.

For further information concerning education in Virginia consult the Index.

WASHINGTON TERRITORY.

The following is taken from the special report of Superintendent J. C. Lawrence to the Governor of the Territory:

PROGRESS OF EDUCATION.

"I take pleasure in reporting progress in the educational affairs of Washington Territory for the past year. The interest taken in our public schools by patrons, teachers, and superintendents seems greater now than ever before. This is shown, first, in the amount of money raised for school purposes, in special tax and voluntary subscriptions, and in other means, aside from the regular tax levied in each county for the support of schools, by the increased amount of school furniture, apparatus. globes, dictionaries, etc., for the use of schools; second, by the interest teachers have taken in institutes the past year-a greater interest than ever before taken. Twenty counties of the 33 in the Ter ritory have held institutes of from 3 days' to 2 weeks' duration. The majority of our teachers have attended these institutes. The counties failing to hold institutes were such as had fewer than 500 children of school age. In some instances the services of trained institute workers have been secured at an expense of several hundred dollars, and teachers have contributed from their own resources to meet these expenses. The new methods of teaching have been discussed and are being adopted. A large number of our teachers have had the best training the Eastern schools afford, and have had successful experience in the East prior to coming here. District clerks and county superintendents have taken pains to make full reports to this office. All these I take to be indications of greater interest in educational matters.

"It is needless to say that the public schools of the Territory are in their infancy. Scarcely more could be expected. With 65,000 children, and a total amount raised for school purposes of only $500,000, only a portion of which has been used in teachers' sal