(a) Great Britain and France, being still actively at war, continued to capture our ships on the ocean and in foreign

ports;

(b) the State Department at Washington had a list of six thousand American seamen who had been forced into the English navy, while nine hundred of our vessels were recorded to have been boarded by the British in eight years;

(c) by virtue of the Non-Intercourse Act, our ships were still forbidden to trade with either France or England; (d) the English minister at Washington had made a promise that the Orders in Council should be withdrawn, provided the United States would repeal the Non-Intercourse Act. Subsequently, trade was reopened with England. The ships that first made the attempt to trade abroad were, however, immediately captured. The Orders in Council were still in force and the English minister who had made the promise was recalled as having exceeded his instructions, and the Non-Intercourse Act was again put in force.

Great Britain claimed, "Once an Englishman, always an Englishman," whereas the United States held that any foreigner could become an American by naturalization. There were, of course, causes for annoyance on both sides. It not infrequently happened that English seamen procured fraudulent naturalization papers and entered the American navy, so that it was not unusual for an English captain, visiting an American port, to find himself without a crew when ready to put to sea again. The better treatment and higher pay received in American ships made American naval service preferable to English service. In the meantime Congress (May, 1810) passed the "Macon Bill," which, named after its author, repealed the Non-Intercourse Act. It provided, however, that in case either Great Britain or France should repeal its decrees, non-intercourse should be resumed with the other nation.

377. Napoleon's Intrigue. The wily Napoleon, feigning friendship, announced in a letter to the United States a repeal of the Milan and Berlin decrees. At once numerous American vessels sailed for European ports, but they were promptly seized and despoiled by the French. Matters were now fast hastening toward a crisis.

Madison, provoked by all these outrages, ordered the frigate President to sea to protect our commerce. The President was soon fired upon by the British sloop of war Little Belt, and in the ensuing battle the English vessel was badly crippled. The people felt that this event avenged the Leopard-Chesapeake insult, which was still fresh in their minds.

378. More Indian Troubles. To add to the difficulties confronting the nation, the Indians of the western frontiers, led by the great chiefs, Tecumseh and "The Prophet," who, it is supposed, were incited by the English, threatened the safety of the western settlers. General William Harrison, governor of Indian Territory, collected troops and repulsed the savages at their town of Tippecanoe, on the Wabash River. The losses on both sides were very heavy, Harrison losing one-fourth of his men. Tecumseh, absent at the time of the battle of Tippecanoe urging the southern Indians to join the confederationreturned only after the defeat of these northern tribes by Harrison.

379. War Declared. The responsibility of maintaining peace or entering upon war was now thrown upon Congress, which met in extra session (November 4, 1811). It had a strong Republican majority in each house-an unusual number of able and high-spirited young men from the West and South. These were led by John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, and Henry Clay, of Kentucky. This vigorous generation of young congressmen loudly advocated war and finally forced Madison to declare it, by threatening him with the loss of a second term in case he should refuse. Thus pressed and overruled, the peace-loving President reluctantly signed the act declaring war

against Great Britain (June 18, 1812). Two days previous, England had revoked the Orders in Council, but this news reached America too late. Even if it had come in due time, war could scarcely have been averted, unless Great Britain's claim of search had also been renounced. It has been said, without proof, however, that Madison agreed to sanction war as a condition of his renomination.

Calhoun (1782-1850) and Clay (1777-1852) were for the next forty years the great political leaders of the country. Calhoun, at this time a champion of nationalization and the protective tariff policy, afterwards became the leader of the opposing party, which advocated states' rights, slavery, and free trade. Clay, only thirty-four years of age, had gained prominence in his own state legislature, and later twice filled a vacancy in the United States Senate, where he at once gained distinction for his sound logic, force of will, and fiery eloquence. He was of a peace-loving spirit, and, rising above all personal and party considerations, was wholly devoted to the interests of the Union. Daniel Webster (1782-1852) of New Hampshire, the third of this notable group of statesmen, entered Congress some years later.

380. Who Is the Enemy? It may seem strange that the United States chose to declare war against Great Britain rather than France. Both nations seemed equally blamable as far as American commerce was concerned. However, it would have been foolish to declare war against both, and England was our old enemy. Moreover, there was the chance of wresting Canada from her, which achievement would not only drive her entirely from the continent, but might also force her to make a favorable peace. Hence the object of the war with England was not to secure directly the rights of vessel-owners, for it was thought that our weak navy would be no match for the English fleet in an ocean conflict, but rather to get possession of Canada, and thereby force England to acknowledge our commercial independence.

381. Madison Is Re-elected. The general popularity of the war was shown at the next election, in which Madison was the candidate of the war Republicans. The peace Republicans supported the Federalist nominee, DeWitt Clinton, of New York. Madison obtained one hundred and twenty-eight of the two hundre 1 and eighteen electoral votes, and was reelected President. Vice-president George Clinton died during office and Elbridge Gerry, of Massachusetts, was chosen to succeed him.

382. Causes of the War of 1812. The United States now made preparations to enter upon the second war with England; this time to secure commercial independence. The causes for this war, briefly summed up, were:

(a) the impressment of our seamen into the English navy; (b) the violation of the rights of commerce by British cruisers in American waters;

(c) the "paper" blockades of the Orders in Council;

(d) the attacks of the Indians incited by English traders.

The United States was wholly unprepared for the conflict and was forced to enter upon this important war without the support of all its sections. The people of the vigorous agricultural sections of the South and West, chafing under the humiliations which the nation had so long been suffering, clamored for war; but the peace .Republicans of the middle states and the Federalists of New England preferred an irregular and hazardous trade to war. Most of the little money then in the United States was possessed by the people of New England. They refused to lend it to the government to carry on the war, and they refused to muster their militia.

383. American War Plan for 1812-Failure. The project of invading and overrunning Canada before England could send a large army to America seemed to be uppermost in the minds of the Americans. Hence three armies were brought together on the Canadian frontier:

(a) one, under General William Hull, was to defend Detroit,