of the monetary system, revisions of the tariff, regulation of railroads, corporations, and trusts, reform of the ballot, expansion of territory, and world politics.

622. The Solid South. President Hayes, desirous of reëstablishing the peace and friendship formerly existing between the North and South, wisely did what the opposing Democratic party most favored, and what many of his own party opposed— he withdrew the Federal troops from the South. The carpet-bag governments, being unable to stand without military support, were overthrown by the southern Democrats, who at once obtained control of these states. From this time forward the white vote of the South assumed control and the negro ceased to govern. This event marked the beginning of a better feeling between the two sections, which was still further increased by the appointment of a Democrat, David M. Key, as PostmasterGeneral by President Hayes. The epoch of reconstruction had finally come to a close (1877).

623. New Industrial Conditions. During the war, when people had been forced to do business on a large scale-to make rifles and cannon; to furnish food and to manufacture clothing; and to construct gunboats and warships-they learned from experience that there was more gain in united action than in competition. After the war this fact led to the formation of corporations, that is, the combining of the capital and interests of several men for doing business. Many of these corporations, proceeding still further, united so as to make one. great company, known as a "trust." For example, instead of there being many separate railroad companies in the United States, a few soon gained control of the great lines. Instead of a great many independent oil companies, the Standard Oil Company eventually managed to control nearly all the coal. oil in the country. The same may be said of other classes of industries-cotton, sugar, tobacco, steel, etc. Naturally, undersuch conditions the contrast between the rich and poor became more apparent. The trusts crowded out the smaller corpora

tions and the weaker stockholders. Large numbers of women and children were employed in factories, while a reduction of wages and an increase in the duties and hours of labor for employees followed. The result of the new industrial conditions was, naturally, a general feeling of discontent among the laboring classes.

624. Labor Unions. In order to check the alarming development and aggressiveness of capitalists and corporations, which threatened to oppress and degrade the toiling masses more and more, labor unions, which had existed in our country even before the Constitution, now became more numerous and widespread. Notable among these unions was the Knights of Labor, an organization which included in its membership workers of all industries. It gained hundreds of thousands of members and exerted a great influence all over the country. The purposes of the unions may be summarized as follows: (a) the distribution of sick and death benefits;

(b) the fostering of a spirit of coöperation among workingmen ; (c) the spread of educational influence, through meetings, papers, and discussions;

(d) common action looking toward the increase of wages and the decrease of working hours;

(e) a demand for legislation insuring the safety and comfort of laborers and the protection of women and children. 625. Strikes Black Lists-Boycotts. The two primary objects of most labor unions were the increase of wages and the decrease of hours of labor. In case a company refused to grant these, or otherwise failed to satisfy the demands of the union, the workingmen united in a "strike," that is, stopped working and kept other men from working in their places, till some agreement had been made. The employers, in turn, united against the workingmen by making out "black lists" containing the names of the leaders of the union men, to whom, from that time forward, they agreed to refuse employment. The workingmen sometimes decided to "boycott" a firm, that is,

they refused to trade with it, or even handle its goods for transportation. In the early years of this period the strikers were seldom successful.

The first great strike occurred in 1877, when several of the leading railroads had reduced the wages of their employees. For two weeks trains did not run, and mobs held possession of railroad stations and shops. At Pittsburg, the center of the storm, property was destroyed by the rioters and several persons were killed. The nationál troops, however, restored order. This railroad strike was contagious and soon spread to mining, manufacturing, and other industries. In San Francisco the riots (1877) consisted not so much in railroad striker as attacks on employers of Chinese laborers.

The Chinese had come to California in large numbers after the Burlingame Treaty. They clung to their customs and superstitions, worked for low wages, returned home with their earnings, and made no pretense whatsoever of becoming citizens. Hence they were undesirable competitors of white laborers. Congress attempted to enact an anti-Chinese law for the protection of American labor; the bill, however, was vetoed by President Hayes.

626. The Yellow Fever Epidemic. During the summer of 1878 the South was visited by a dreadful malady, the yellow fever. This epidemic raged with terrible fatality, especially in New Orleans and Memphis, and over fourteen thousand persons fell victims. Strict quarantine and a system of disinfection were established in nearly every city of the country Aid was sent to the afflicted cities from all parts of the Union.

627. Eads and the Mississippi Jetties. During Hayes's administration an achievement of vast importance to the South was accomplished (1875-1879) by Captain B. Eads of St. Louis, the builder of the ironclads used during the war, and of the great steel arch bridge spanning the river at St. Louis. The large quantities of mud and sand carried seaward by the

Mississippi-Missouri gradually filled up the mouths of the stream and prevented the passage of heavy steamers. Repeated attempts had been made and millions of dollars expended by both the United States and Louisiana governments for the removal of the bars and the deepening of the channel. Captain Eads, after great opposition, was finally allowed by Congress to try the "jetty system" used in the low countries of Europe. By means of thousands of bundles of faggots he narrowed the channel so as to increase the force of the current to such a degree as to sweep out its own channel, thus making it possible for large steamers to pass up to New Orleans or out to sea without difficulty.

EADS BRIDGE

The success of this gigantic undertaking helped to make New Orleans by far the largest and most important commercial city of the South.

628. The BlandAllison Bill. Owing to the discovery of new and rich silver mines in some of the

western states and to popular opposition to the discontinuance of the silver dollar coinage, Congress now decided to remonetize silver by providing that a certain amount should be purchased and coined each month. Accordingly, an act known as the Bland-Allison Bill (from the men who presented this measure) was passed. It provided:

(a) for the purchase and coinage into dollars of not less than two million nor more than four million dollars' worth of silver each month. The coinage of this silver was to be at the rate of sixteen to one, that is, sixteen pounds of silver were to be coined into the same number of dollars as one pound of gold;

(b) that silver be a legal tender in payment of debts at face value; (c) that Congress provide for depositing the silver thus coined in the treasury, and issue certificates as currency in its place, owing to the fact that so much silver in circulation would prove inconvenient. The Bland-Allison Bill, passed over the President's veto, stimulated the production of silver and greatly encouraged the mining industries in Colorado, Nevada, and other states of the West.

629. The Resumption of Specie Payment. According to the act (1875) providing for the resumption of specie payment, the national treasury was fully prepared at the appointed time (January, 1879) to exchange the people's greenbacks at par value for gold. The people, however, even those who had been hoarding legal tender notes for that express purpose, now showed no desire to obtain gold when it was worth no more than silver or greenbacks, because paper money was so much more convenient to handle. Since 1879 our paper money has been equal to gold or silver, and the government has ever since held to the policy of maintaining the three kinds of money on an equality.

630. The Presidential Campaign of 1880. President Hayes. had taken a firm stand against political corruption. Believing that "He serves his party best who serves his country best,' he had made fitness a test in his appointment of public officers, and had surrounded himself with a Cabinet of good advisers; in brief, he had given the country a capable, peaceful administration. He did not, however, enjoy popularity with the political leaders. Consequently, when the time of election drew near he was not a candidate for re-election. His withdrawal of the Federal troops, hitherto maintained in the South to secure fair elections, removed the last obstacle in the way of negro disfranchisement.

In the election of 1880 there were four parties in the field.