ine Sheffler. A method of study and selftesting was worked out, so that each child had the mechanical means and a detailed procedure at hand for learning the combinations, for forestalling possible error in study by himself, and for knowing definitely when the group was mastered. In the study device the correct answer was always easily consulted so that he never need hesitate or give a wrong answer. Written tests at intervals covered all combinations previously mastered and prevented pupils from going on until thoroughly in command of all that went before. Each kept his own record. For accuracy, certainty, interest, and actual achievement, the lower class without any oral class drill whatever excelled the upper half of the room in the same subject. But the greatest benefit to them was an alert, aggressive attitude toward their work, and the acquisition of an individual technique of study. They know better now how to go at things. They immediately manifest a new interest and independence. The business of learning becomes their job, not the teacher's, they know how much lies before them, learn to plan ahead, and feel the urge of motives lasting over months of time. Educators owe a debt of gratitude to Helen Parkhurst, the late Dr. Frederic Burk, Carleton Washburne, and others, who have done so much to point the way to individualization of instruction. Much of the future of education lies in that direction, and modifications of procedure of a most profound character must be devised as we progress. We may hope thus to effect an elastic and adaptable organization for the maximum educational growth of each individual in all the diversity of his capacities. THE TECHINQUE OF THE QUESTION By WILL D. ANDERSEN, Principal, Mont Clare School I. CRITERION. The measure of a question is its challenge, the response it compels, and the intellectual contact it establishes. A query is weighed not by its rhetoric, but by its throb of interest, its power to stimulate the creative and imaginative faculties. 2. WORDING. Asking a question at random in the language of the text is puttering that works for confusion. It reveals a woeful lack both of preparation and of originality. It has no appeal. It not only develops a habit of verbal memorization, but also banishes all spontaneity from a recitation. 3. HASTE. A brief, clear, concise question inspires a clear, complete, concise answer. The brevity of the answers is in proportion to the rapidity with which questions are piled on questions. Rapidfire questions block the recitation, appeal to memory only, and make reflective thinking impossible. How many times has a pupil answered the first question as the second or third was being propounded! His brain worked in spite of the bungling, befogging efforts of the instructor. Where answers are monosyllabic the quizzing is hurried, the teacher is the worker, and the pupils are spectators. 4. AIM. A vigorous purpose motivates a series of questions. Each question in the series "lives, moves, and has its being" in the light of that purpose. Each is valid to the extent that it tunes into that purpose. A good question is freighted with meaning. A good teacher is as chary of her words as a miser of his gold. 5. PAUSING REPEATING. The repetition of a question invites inattention and causes a loss of interest. A hasty rewording of a question bewilders. Pauses after questions give time for reflection and are the salt of the recitation. They allow for that agony of suspended judgment, quicken mental effort and originality, and train in concentration. Prolific questioning is decidedly disconcerting and discouraging. It makes teaching garrulous and loquacious. 6 CONCENTRATION. The habit of repeating the pupils' answers makes a recitation unbearably dull and disorderly. Pupils become lackadaisical and dreamy and depend upon the teacher to relay the message rather than listen themselves. The practice invalidates good recitations, discounts the pupils' efforts, and lowers the tone of teaching. It is an insult to the students' intelligence and a sad commentary on the teacher. It is a habit trap from which escape means constant endeavor. We are inconsistent to demand originality of pupils when we ourselves are imitators. A teacher who repeats her questions and echoes her pupils' answers places a premium on listlessness, parroting, and idleness. 7. ORDER OF RECITING. A wide distribution of questions, not following the seating, not falling upon bright pupils only, questions so put as to keep every individual alert and guessing where the lightning will strike, charge the very atmosphere with vigor. Such a method has the force of a pile-driver and produces a vivacity that grips. 8. GUESSING. A question that carries a suggestion of the answer, either in tone of voice or in language used, has no validity, is inane, and inefficient-is chatter pure and simple. A pronounced dramatic tone of voice, rising in force, creates a superficial, noisy enthusiasm. The teacher gets back what she gives. Both direct and alternative questions lead to guessing. If the answer is not yes, it is certainly no; and if not one it is the other. Such questions are chatter and often produce a chorus of answers, a babel of voices, and infectious vacuity. 9. PREPARATION. The more the language of the question is adapted to the vocabulary of the pupil and the content to his experience, the keener will be the appeal and the greater the reaction and ardor of the class. A good question never comes out of the air on the spur of the moment, a lucky accident. Good questioning the result of perspiration; not inspiration. Desultory teaching grows out of a lack of preparation and too much reliance upon mother wit or past experience. Added preparation multiplies into the joys of the recitation. A little vigilance, like a little leaven, makes for buoyancy and sparkle in teaching. 10. "How?" The "how" and the "why" questions stir grey matter. The “who", "what", and "when" questions appear in memoriter, dead teaching. Practice the use of summary questions. They build a foundation for the new and assure an apperceptive basis. A succession of recapitulation affords opportunity for purposeful drills. They focus group attention sharply on the problem. A resumé gives the reticent pupil a chance to recite. II. SELF-EXPRESSION. An opportunity to express themselves must always be afforded pupils who seek further explanation of an ambiguous point. Many times their questions will be answered before the class period is over, and many times their questions are dull and irrelevant, but teaching that causes a pupil to fear to offer a query is too repressive to develop initiative. Quicken the inquisitive bump. Here is the chance to discover a bent or bias that may be developed into leadership. 12. FINESSE. Any school visitor is impressed with the great number of purposeless questions asked pupils, the speed with which they are asked, and the impossibility of giving an exact answer to a tithe of them. The habit of wording a logical question slowly, addressing it with a glint in the eye to the entire group. pausing for reflection, then calling upon an individual to recite, gives a finesse in teaching easily ranked superior. Its success is registered by the joy-light that leaps from the pupils' eyes. 13. OVER-HELPING. The habit of flying pell-mell to the rescue with a too-ready question, when a child stumbles, destroys his independence. Let him wobble. He will take pride in his own heroic endeavor. He will reach the goal by the psychological rather than by the logical road. The unpardonable sin is too much haste to help. It is useless to give a crutch to the dead, anyway. If errors are serious their correction is the classes' opportunity. Why coddle? 14. Self-ReLIANCE. That method of teaching is most effective that makes questions least necessary. There is little retention and less reaction from questions that hedge the pupil about at every turn and give no opportunity for self-activity. Make assignments with an eye single to unhindered class discussion. Give out topics covering a field so large that the student must exert his sense of choice in the selection of most important factors; projects with such a wealth of detail that his powers of imagination are put to the fullest test in organizing them. Let outside guidance and suggestion supplant interminable class quizzing. 15. SENTENCE ANSWER. It is not always necessary that pupils answer in complete sentences. If a logical answer is one word it is illogical to insist upon a sen tence. The sacrifice to formal grammar is less loss than the sacrifice to straight thinking. The mere repetition of words adds little vividness to thinking already done. The better method would be not to ask a question that is its own answer or that can be answered by a single word. In general, we bolster up, prop up, and help along our pupils by a deal of questioning, and we do it to their own detriment. 16. THE HUMAN ELEMENT. Stern efficiency in quizzing need at no point outrage the feelings of pupils or do violence in any manner to human sympathy. Indeed, straight thinking in conducting a class as evidenced by questioning develops the human touch. The provocative quality of a question is valid when it acts upon the intellect—not upon personal feelings. Not antagonism, but discussion, conversation socially carried on, emotions seriously stirred, must be the result of questions artistically put. 17. SUMMARY. Keen, crisp quizzing that cuts into the truth to the quick is a disciplinary tonic and exerts a chastening influence upon a school. Under such an influence the mind grows, the child becomes, and the school educates. SELECTED REFERENCES ON STANDARDIZED TESTS AND STATISTICS By DENTON L. GEYER, Education Department, Chicago Normal College BIBLIOGRAPHIES Psychological Index under heading, "Mental Development in Man.” Bulletins of the U. S. Bureau of Education, called "Current Educational Literature." Library Leaflets of the U. S. Bureau of Education. PERIODICALS In order of importance for measuring movement: Journal of Educational Research, Journal of Educational Psychology, Journal of Applied Psychology, School and Society, Elementary School Journal, School Review, Educational Review, Psychological Review, American Journal of Psychology, Journal of Philosophy, Journal of Experimental Pedagogy, Journal of Delinquency, British Journal of Psy-. chology. GENERAL TREATISES STRESSING Brooks, S. S. Improving Schools by Standardized Tests. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1922. Pp. 278. Actual experiences in transforming backward rural schools by means of standardized tests, readably presented in narrative form. Courtis, S. A. Gary Public Schools: Measment of Classroom Products. General Education Board, 1919. Pp. 532. Generalized account of measurement in the Gary Survey. Geyer, D. L. Introduction to the Use of Standardized Tests. Plymouth Press, 1922. Pp. 95. A brief general account of intelligence and achievement tests, and directions for putting meaning into scores. Gilliland, A. R., and Jordan, R. H. Educational Measurements and the Classroom Teacher. Century Co., 1923. Pp. 269. Gregory, C. A. Fundamentals of Educational Measurement. D. Appleton and Co., 1922. Pp. 382. Written from the viewpoint of administrative efficiency. Hines, H. C. Guide to Educational Measurements. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1923. Pp. 270. Brief outline of achievement tests, intelligence tests, and statistical measures. Lincoln, E. A. Beginnings in Educational Measurement. J. B. Lippincott Co., 1924. Pp. 151. Sketchy outlines of the whole measuring movement. Bibliography. McCall, W. A. How to Measure in Education. Macmillan Co., 1923. Pp. 281. Full and technical presentation of principles for construction and use of standardized tests and for interpretation of results. Monroe, W. S. Introduction to the Theory standard tests of all kinds. Excellent bibliography. Paterson, D. G. Preparation and Use of New-Type Examinations. World Book Co., 1925. Pp. 87. Brief practical guide for the construction of true-false, bestanswer tests, etc., with excellent annotated bibliography. The best first-book for those starting the use of the NewType examinations. Paulu, E. M. Diagnostic Tests and Remedial Teaching. D. C. Heath and Co., 1924. Pp. 371. Good on remedial work to follow testing. Pressey, S. L. and L. W. Introduction to the Use of Standard Tests. World Book Co., 1922. Pp. 263. A simplified statement of salient facts regarding intelligence and achievement tests and elementary statistics. The Problem of the Elementary Schoo Prnicipal in the Light of the Testing Movement. Bulletin of the Department of Elementary School Principals, Vol. 2. No. 4. National Education Association, 1923. Pp. 480. Practical applications. Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Session of the Ohio State Educational Confer ence. Ohio State University, 1924. Pp. 386. Uses of tests. Ruch, G. M. Improvement of the Written Examination. Scott, Foresman and Co., 1925. Pp. 193. Studies of objective examinations such as true-false, bestanswer, sentence-completion, etc. Trabue, M. R. Measuring Results in Edu cation. American Book Co., 1924. Pp. 492. Excellent outline stressing subject matter tests. Wilson, G., and Hoke, K. J. How to Meas ure. Macmillan Co., 1921. Pp. 285. Shows samples of many tests. Wood, B. D. Measurement in Higher Ed ucation. World Book Co., 1923. Pp. 337. Use of intelligence and achieve ment tests in Columbia University. (Note: On objective examinations to be made by the teacher himself, the above books by Paterson Ruch, and Wood are excellent.) of Educational Measurements. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1923. Pp. 364. An excellent advanced textbook. Monroe, W. S. Measuring the Results of Teaching. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1918. Pp. 297. Emphasizes remedial measures. Monroe, DeVoss, and Kelly. Educational Tests and Measurements. Revised Edition. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1924. Pp. 521. A good systematic account of Ballard, P. B. Group Tests of Intelligence. BOOKS ON INTELLIGENCE TESTS Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1922. Pp. 252. A readable and valuable general account, clearly set forth. Ballard, P. B. Mental Tests. Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1920. Pp. 232. Popular and witty explanation and defense of the testing movement. Contains samples of interesting tests. Binet, A. and Simon, Th. Development of Intelligence in Children. Courier Herald Co., 1916. Pp. 336. Binet, A. and Simon, Th. Intelligence of the Feeble-Minded. Courier Herald Co., 1916. Pp. 328. Book, W. F. Intelligence of High School Seniors. Macmillan Co., 1922. Pp. 371. Relation of intelligence scores of 6,000 pupils in 329 high schools of Indiana to scholastic record, favorite studies, choice of occupation, wealth of parents, plans for college. Burt, Cyril. Mental and Scholastic Tests. P. S. King and Son, London, 1922. Pp. 432. Instructions for using the BinetSimon Scale and investigations of its validity by the psychologist of the London County Council. Extremely valuable researches. Dewey, E., Childs, E., and Ruml, B. Methods and Results of Testing School Children. E. P. Dutton and Co., 1920. Pp. 176. Objective tests for dull but not feeble-minded children. Dickson, V. E. Mental Tests and the Classroom Teacher. World Book Co., 1923. Pp. 231. A valuable outline fairly well covering the whole field of intelligence testing. Goddard, H. H. Human Efficiency and Levels of Intelligence. Princeton University Press, 1920. Pp. 128. Stimulating lectures covering about 100 pages, showing future importance of the movement. Herring, J. P. Herring Revision of the Binet-Simon Test. World Book Co., 1922. Pp. 56. Description of a revision taking less time to administer than the Stanford. Hines, H. C. Measuring Intelligence. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1923. Pp. 146. A good brief statement of essentials. Pintner, R. Intelligence Testing. Henry Holt and Co., 1923. Pp. 406. History of the scales, description of methods used, and application to various groups -soldiers, college students, school children, delinquents, etc. Pintner, R. and Paterson, D. G. A Scale of Performance Tests. D. Appleton and Co., 1917. Pp. 217. Description of a widely used non-language scale. Proctor, W. M. Psychological Tests and Guidance of High School Pupils. Public School Publishing Co., 1921. Pp. 125. Effects of educational and vocational advice based on intelligence scores. Richardson, C. A. Methods and Experiments in Mental Tests. World Book Co., 1923. Pp. 92. Brief readable defense of intelligence tests. Scott, W. D. and Hayes, M. H. S. Science and Common Sense in Working With Men. Ronald Press, 1921. Pp. 154. An interesting account of standardized tests in industry. Stern, W. Psychological Methods of Testing Intelligence. Warwick and York, 1914. Pp. 160. Excellent general account of underlying principles. Terman, L. M. Genetic Studies of Genius. Vol. I. Stanford University Press, 1925. Pp. 648. Cumulative measurements of children of exceptional ability. Terman, L. M. Measurement of Intelligence. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1916. Pp. 362. Description of the Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Scale and instructions for its use. Terman, L. M. Intelligence of School Children. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1919. Pp. 317. Individual differences revealed by the Binet Scale. Terman, L. M. and others. Intelligence Tests and School Reorganization. World Book Co., 1922. Pp. 111. Brief account of practical uses made of the tests in various cities. Trabue, M. R. and Stockbridge, F. P. Measure Your Mind. Doubleday, Page and Co., 1920. Pp. 349. Readable and |