offence. The common punishment for perjury, the great promoter of all crimes, is only to ride backwards on an ass. The punishment of death is inflicted in various ways. Sometimes the criminal or the victim, is strangled by a rope called the bow-string, twisted with a stick at the back of the neck. Impaling is rare, but decapitation by the scimetar is common. The bodies are thrown for three days into the street, and are often devoured by dogs. For adultery it is at Constantinople the practice, after a brief consultation with the Cadi, to tie the female in a sack, and drown her in the Bosphorus. It is not however very common. All the operations of the judicial authori ties are prompt and summary, and if the guilty are punished, it is little heeded that the innocent may suffer. At Pera, the Franks complained that many robberies had been committed by the porters, and several were in consequence strangled. The evil continued, and the porters were employed in a body to carry grain on board the Capudan Pacha's ship, where all were seized, and drowned.

The ulemas are men learned in the laws, and include ministers of religion, doctors in law, called muftis; and judges, called cadis. The grand mufti resides in the capital and his person is sacred; the Sultan cannot condemn to death any inferior mufti, till he has first invested him with some other office. The mufti expounds the law and gives a written decision, even to a feigned case, called 'fetva.' There are 55 volumes of these decisions, of which the following are samples. Can the son-in-law legally marry his mother-in-law! He cannot. God knows best.' 'Can women and children of property be as sessed? Yes. God knows best.'

21. ANTIQUITIES. The Turks are no conservators of antiquities; and the best remains of the conquered people have disappeared. The walls of Con stantinople are still nearly perfect; and in several places they are inscribed with the names of the Emperors. The mosque which was the church of Sancta Sophia is preserved only because the conquerors converted it to the uses of their own worship. In the Hippodrome, which is about 400 feet long by 100 wide, is a pyramid, a needle of Egyptian granite, and the colunia of two twisted serpents, that supported the tripod at Delphi. The heads of the serpents have been broken off. Several cisterns show the magnificence of the ancient city. Some are filled up with sand, and used as gardens, and some that are still covered are turned to other uses. One called the Strangers' Friend, is a vast subterraneous edifice, supported by marble pillars. It is of great depth, and has 672 marble columns, each column being compos ed of three pillars. It holds 1,237,939 cubic feet. It will supply the whole city with water for 60 days. Another cistern is like a subterranean lake, and extends under several streets. The roof is arched and supported by 336 magnificent pillars. This only is put to its original use, yet its existence is not generally known to the citizens. A number of tubes ascend to supply the streets above, yet so incurious are the Turks, that the people who use the water know not whence it comes.

The Aqueduct of Valens stretching from hill to hill, is a magnificent object. The streets run through it and beside it. Vines occupy the crevices, and nourished by the water, hang down in wide patches of green.

The Labyrinth of Crete, the residence of the fabled Minotaur, can now be explored with safety only by the means furnished by Ariadne, that is by a thread, to point out the way of return. The entrance is natural but very narrow, and opens into a wider passage, somewhat obstructed by stones, and with a flat roof cut in the rock above. On leaving this, it is necessary to creep 100 paces through a low passage. From this the roof rises again, and various roads both diverge, and cross each other: they are about 7 feet high, and from 6 to 10 wide; cut with the chisel in the rock. The number and complication of them are beyond description. Some curve gradually and lead to open spaces, with roofs supported by pillars. Savary unfolded 400 fathoms of line,

without including lateral and other excursions, but did not examine the whole labyrinth. The air is unwholesome, and there are no stalactites. The dark recesses are peopled by millions of bats.

22. POPULATION AND REVENUE. The population of this great empire is by no means equal either to its extent or fertility; nor is it possible to state it with perfect accuracy. The tyranny under which the natives groan, the practice of polygamy, and the prevalence of the plague, all tend to check increase. It is thought that the number of inhabitants does not exceed 8,000,000. The public income arises from uncertain sources. One of the most permanent is a miri, or tenth of the produce of the lands of the whole empire. A property-tax, and a poll-tax, levied on Greeks, Armenians, and Jews, together with the customs, are the other permanent sources. tional income is augmented by confiscations, casual contributions, and imperial exactions. The impositions on Christians are altogether arbitrary, and may consequently be extended to the most oppressive degree.

The na

23. ARMY AND NAVY. The Turkish army in war has been estimated at upwards of 300,000 men. The present Sultan has succeeded in the attempt in which all his predecessors failed, to introduce European discipline. The Navy has lately been stated at 20 ships of the line, with fifteen frigates, and a few smaller vessels. The sailors are inexpert and undisciplined.

24. HISTORY. The origin of the Turks, although comparatively recent, is obscure. Their name begins to appear in history about the middle of the 6th century, when they attracted notice as a Scythian tribe, settled at the foot of the Altaian mountains, between Siberia and China. The Saracen Caliphs of Bagdad chose their body guards from this tribe, and the Turkish chiefs gradually assuming authority, at length engrossed the whole power of the state and elevated themselves to the throne. In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Turkish dynasties reigned in Palestine, Syria and Egypt, but the proper founder of the Ottoman Empire was Osman or Othman, a predatory chief, who conquered Asia Minor and assumed the title of Sultan in 1300, Mahomet II. conquered Constantinople in 1353, and this was the overthrow of the Greek Empire.

The rapid progress of the Turkish arms threatened the downfall of Christendom, but the vigorous resistance of the Christian powers checked their incursions into the west of Europe, and in the 17th century the Ottoman power began to decline; it encountered, the following century, a new enemy in the Russians, who first displayed to the world the secret of its intrinsic weakThe same nation may be considered as having accomplished the overthrow of the Turkish influence in our own days, when in 1828 a Russian army crossed the Balkan, advanced nearly to the gates of Constantinople, and dictated a peace to the Sultan. Turkey is no longer considered a first rate European power.

ness.

CHAPTER LXXII.-SWITZERLAND.

1. BOUNDARIES AND EXTENT. Switzerland is bounded north by the grand duchy of Baden and the kingdom of Wurtemberg; east by the Austrian province of Tyrol; south by the Sardinian and the Lombardo Venetian states, and west by France. It extends from 45° 50′ to 47° 50′ N. lat., and from 5° 50' to 10 30′ E. lon. Its length from E. to W. is 200 miles, its breadth from N. to S. 130; and its superficial extent has been estimated by some at 19,000 square miles.

2. MOUNTAINS AND VALLEYS. Two distinct ranges of mountains traverse

Switzerland. The chain of the Jura stretches from southwest to northeast. The Alps form a more extensive chain, and run nearly parallel to the Jura with numerous branches known among geographers by the names of the Pennine, Lepontine and Rhætian Alps. These mountains cover a great part of the country and exhibit inaccessible peaks covered with snow; eternal and boundless wastes of ice; valleys surrounded by immense precipices; in contrast with wooded and undulating slopes, vine-clad fields, and bright patches of vegetation.

Mont Blanc, the highest summit in Europe, overlooks the celebrated vale of Chamouni in Savoy a district not comprised within the political limits of Switzerland, but which pertains to it in a geographical character. This mountain is 15,814 feet in height: it is capped with eternal snow, and the approach to the top is so full of difficulty and hazard that it has never been ascended except in four or five instances.

One distinguishing characteristic of the Swiss mountains is the Glaciers, which resemble a stormy sea, suddenly congealed and bristling all over with sharp ridges. The Avalanches or slips of snow form another peculiar feature in the scenery of this country. There are innumerable valleys entirely desolated, and almost inaccessible to anything having life, in consequence of these tremendous visitations from the surrounding cliffs. Not only the snow-fields, but mountains themselves occasionally slide down upon the country below. In 1806 a piece of the Rossberg, twice as large as the city of Paris, slipped down at once into the lake of Lowertz, and occasioned the most dreadful devastation. Another accident of the same kind occurred on the lake of Lu cern in 1801, when eleven persons were drowned at a village on the opposite side of the lake, by the wave raised by the plunge of the falling mass. Swit zerland abounds in deep and romantic valleys, many of which are fertile and well-cultivated, and full of wild and picturesque scenery.

3. RIVERS. The Rhine has its three sources in the Rhætian Alps, and passing through the lake of Constance, flows to the westward until it reaches Basle. The Rhone is formed by different streams from Mounts Grimsel and Farca, and flows into the lake of Geneva. The Tesino issues from Mount Gries and traverses lake Maggiore in Italy. The Inn rises in the Grisons, runs N. E, and subsequently joins the Danube.

4. LAKES. The lake of Geneva, called also Leman, is 40 miles long. It is 1,230 feet above the level of the sea and its greatest depth is about 1,000 feet. The waters of this lake are beautifully transparent, and the sur rounding scenery has long been celebrated for its magnificence. lake of Constance is about 45 miles in length and 15 in breadth. The lake Lugano is at an elevation of 880 French feet above the sea. The lake of Lucern is above 20 miles in length and from 8 to 10 in breadth; its greatest depth is about 600 feet and its navigation dangerous. Among the numer ous other lakes are those of Zurich, Neufchatel, Thun, Brientz, Morat and

Biel

5. CLIMATE. From the great elevation of Switzerland, the air is pure and salubrious; and though in some of the narrow valleys, where radiation is great, the heat is often excessive, yet the atmosphere is in general much cooler than might be expected from the latitude. Three different climates may

* A recent traveller, in describing them, says: you cannot picture the scene; but you can form some idea of the awe-struck astonishment which filled our minds, when, after surmounting all the difficulties of the way, we found ourselves standing amidst a world of ice, extending around, beneath, above us; far beyond where the straining sight, in every direction, vainly sought to follow the interminable frozen leagues of glaciers, propped up in towering pyramids, or shapeless heaps, or opening into yawning gulfs and unfathomable fissures. Here there is no trace of vegetation, no blade of grass, no bush, no tree; no spreading weed or creeping lichen invades the cold still desolation of the icy desert. It is the death of nature! The only sound which meets the ear is that of the loud detonation of the ice, as it bursts open into new abysses with the crash of thunder, and reverberates from the wild rocks like the voice of the mountain storms.'

be said to exist in this country: viz. the cold in the Alps, the temperate in the plains, and the hot in the canton of Tesino. In the valleys however, the temperature, of districts at a short distance from one another, often varies extremely.

6. SOIL. In the upper regions of Switzerland, which fall within the limits of cultivation, the soil is chiefly composed of particles crumbled from the rocks that tower above them, and is consequently stony and barren, or merely clothed with a scanty covering of short herbs; but in the lower tracts it is often rich and productive, and in a few places marshy.

7. GEOLOGY. The Alps afford the materials of continual study to the geologist who examines them. Granitic rocks, of a date posterior to the formation of organized beings, make up the chain connected with Mont Blanc. Different calcareous ramifications of the same chain extend a long way northwards, and rise to a great height, while the granitic rocks on the south descend to the confines of Italy.

8. NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. Forests of larch, pine, and fir, intermixed with yew, mountain ash, and birch, clothe the sides of the Swiss Alps the oak, elm, ash, beech, lime, and chestnut flourish here.

9. MINERALS. The mountains abound in marble, porphyry and alabaster. Iron, lead, copper, zinc, crystal, cobalt, bismuth, arsenic and antimony are found in veins and masses. Quarries of rock salt are met with, particularly in the Pays de Vaud.

10. ANIMALS. Cattle are plentiful, and form the chief wealth of the inhabitants. The tame animals are those common to Europe; among the wild ones are the ibex, the chamois and the marmot, and in the unfrequented tracts, bears, lynxes and wolves are common. Birds of prey are not unfrequent, among which is the golden or bearded Vulture or Lammer-geyer, which is often known to carry off lambs.

The

11. CATARACTS. The falls of the Rhine at Schaffhausen, are the most celebrated in Europe. They consist of a violent rapid of about 80 feet in descent; the whole mass of water is broken into foam in the fall, and resembles a cataract of snow. The roar and agitation surpass even Niagara. falls of the Staubbach are produced by a small mountain torrent which falls 800 feet into a rocky cleft: the water is dashed completely into vapor before it reaches the bottom. There are many other cascades among the mountainous parts.

12. FACE OF THE COUNTRY. The general surface of Switzerland exceeds, in rugged sublimity, any other portion of Europe. Nature seems here to have formed everything on her grandest scale, and offers the most striking contrasts. Icy peaks rise into the air close upon the borders of fertile valleys, luxuriant corn-fields are surrounded by immense and dreary plains of ice; in one step the traveller passes from the everlasting snow to the freshest verdure, or from glaciers of chilling coldness to valleys from whose rocky sides the sunbeams are reflected with almost scorching power.

13. ROADS. Some of the Alpine passes in this country are the result of immense labor and ingenuity. Those of St Gothard and the Simplon are the most frequented. The Simplon is a mountain situated in the chain of the higher Alps, between the Valais and Piedmont, in which is found a passage to Italy. The old road being practicable only for foot-passengers and travellers on horseback, in 1801, Bonaparte directed a magnificent road to be constructed, which was completed in 1805. Between Gliss, in the valley of the Rhone, where the road commences, and Domo d' Ossola, in Piedmont, where it terminates, there are four forests of pine, upwards of thirty cascades, several glaciers, twentytwo bridges, and six covered galleries, or tunnels excavated through the solid rock. The road is 24 feet in width, bounded by strong railings of larch, or parapets of granite, with small buildings erected

at short distances for the shelter of travellers. In many other places, roads have been formed along the edges of precipices, bridges thrown over

frightful chasms, and tunnels cut through rocks; and the mighty obstacles interposed by nature have been removed by the skill and boldness of art.

14. DIVISIONS. The Swiss confederacy consists of 22 independent cantons: viz. Schweitz, Uri, Unterwalden, Lucern, Zurich, Glarus, Zug, Bern, Friburg, Soleure, Basle, Schaffhausen, Appenzel, Grisons, Argovia, St Gall, Thurgovia, Tessin, Pas de Vaud, Geneva, Neufchatel, Valais.

15. CITIES AND TOWNS. Bern is usually considered as the capital of Switzerland, but this is rather nominally than politically. It is pleasantly situated on the Aar, and is a large handsome town, partly fortified and containing a beautiful cathedral, a college, an arsenal, and several other public edifices. Pop. 13,500.

Basle, one of the largest trading towns in the confederacy, is situated on the Rhine, by which it is divided into two parts, united by a bridge. It has a library of 28,000 volumes, and is the seat of a University founded in 1459. Pop. 15,000.

Geneva, stands at the western extremity of the lake of that name, and is divided by the Rhone into two parts. Its library contains about 50,000 volumes. It has some manufactures of woolen, muslin, chintz, silk, porcelain; and particularly watches, which employ near 7,000 persons. The book trade has ever been very flourishing here. Pop. 23,000.

Zurich stands on the lake of the same name, upon both sides of the river Limmath. It is distinguished for its college and public library,, and has flourishing manufactures of muslins, cottons and silk handkerchiefs. Pop. 12,000.

Lausanne is delightfully situated on three eminences a mile north of the lake of Geneva. It contains a Gothic cathedral of considerable magnificence. Pop. 9,960.