distinct commanders, with jurisdictions intended to be, in many particulars, concurrent, but which the commanders themselves, prompted by jealousy or the demands of self interest, often construed to be absolutely independent, when diverse and independent action was fatal to peace and harmony.

After the death of Alrichs, and the accession of D'Hinnoyossa to the command of the city's colony, these clashings of authority became more frequent and fatally disastrons to the interests of both city and Company. If there was but "little of agreement" between Alrichs and Beekman, there was less between Beekman and D'Hinnoyossa. Despite the efforts both of the West India Company and the Burgomasters of Amsterdam, this lack of harmony continued until it became absolutely necessary, that either the Company or the city should assume entire control of the whole district. The Company, shrewdly forecasting the near future, saw the impossibily of success in this colonial enterprise, circumstanced as it was, so were the more ready to propose favorable terms for the transfer of the whole territory to the city.

After formal and somewhat lengthy negotiations, it was at length determined, on the 12th of February, 1663, that the Company should confer on the city the entire South or Delaware river, and the proprietorship of the land "beginning at the sea, upwards as far as the river extends, and on the north side three leagues from the bank of the river landward in, and on the south side as far as the land extends there to the English colonies."

By this grant, the "high and low jurisdiction " which the city possessed formerly over the colony of New Amstel alone was now extended over the whole territory on the river.

The formal transfer of the river to the city did not take place until the 22d of December, 1663, when a deed for the whole territory on the Delaware was executed, and Alexander D'Hinnoyossa became sole Commandant or Vice Director, and Beekman, left without position on the Delaware, was afterwards appointed Sheriff or Schout of a district on the North river.1

D'Hinnoyossa's administration was of short duration, extending from December 28 1663, to October 1, 1664. During this limited period, arrangements were made for extending the fur and tobacco trade; a governmental revenue was provided for, by the imposition of a tax on imported goods, and upon tobacco and furs exported; and to prevent trouble from savage excess, the brewing and distilling of liquors was prohibited in the colony."

D'Hinnoyossa's rule was brought to an abrupt close on the 1st of October, 1664, by the conquest of the colony by the English under Sir

1 For a biographical sketch of Beekman, vide O'Call. Hist. of N. Neth., Vol. II, p. 472-note.

2 Hazard's Ann., p. 356.

Robert Carre, which proved to be a final quietus to Dutch authority on the Delaware, except for a short period of time during the year 1672.

D'Hinnoyossa, we learn,1 offered to serve the English in the same capacity in which he had the Dutch, but the English declined having anything to do with him. He removed from the Delaware, and afterwards returned to Holland, and entered the army.

CHAPTER IV.

UNDER THE ENGLISH, 1664-1681.

We now enter upon a very important, and, thus far, the most interesting period of the history of events upon the Delaware. For almost a decade Holland held, on the river, the supremacy gained in 1665 over the Swedes, who for seventeen years had maintained their colonial government there. The tenure of the Dutch was at no time certain, constantly harrassed as they were, from the north and from the south, by the persistent efforts of the English to obtain a foothold on the soil. Had not the unsettled condition of affairs in England, during this period, rendered it impossible for that nation to aid her trans-atlantic colonies in their designs upon the Delaware district, in all probability Dutch rule in that quarter would have terminated some years earlier. With the restoration of the Stuarts, came the long expected crisis.

Various reasons are assigned for the grant of the New Netherlands to the Duke of York, by his royal brother, King Charles II., the king's "lack of respect" for the Dutch, and his determination to prevent the evil conse quences which might arise from a permanent settlement of that nation in the midst of the British American colonies; to dispossess the Dutch of their enjoyment of territory, to which the English claimed the title, and thus put an end to the disastrous disputes which were continually arising between the two nations; to give expression to a general feeling of enmity to the States General of Holland, engendered by rivalry in trade, and by other causes ;3 through revenge against the Hollanders, who had intruded upon the supposed rights of the English in Africa, India, and elsewhere.

Revenge and avarice were the ruling incentives which prompted the Duke of York to lay claim to the New Netherlands district, as a commensurate reward for his valuable services to the crown. Revenge against his old enemies, the Dutch, and an avaricious desire to secure to himself the advantages of the entire trade of that valuable country. King Charles, divining the motives of his brother, was not tardy in acceding to his wishes. On the 12th of March, 1664, the king granted to the Duke the coveted territory in the new world, comprising within its confines the entire extent of the New Netherlands, including our colonies on the Delaware, irrespective of Holland's claims and Holland's occupancy.

Thus, as the sequel shows, was created an anomolous condition of affairs.

1 Proud.

2 Hazard.

3 Gordon.

4 Acrelius.

An English government was inaugurated over the subjects of Holland, a hostile nation, with which war was inevitable, while, at the same time, in the government of the newly acquired territory, circumstances compelled the modification of English law to suit the prevailing ordinances of Holland, and the continuance in power, temporarily, at least, of the existing Dutch magistrates.

It is an interesting study, but one far beyond the scope of these pages, to trace the gradual uprooting of Dutch authority, and the implanting of English power on the Delaware, until step by step English customs and English laws prevailed. Holland was loth to loose her grasp upon the rich country, but in vain did she recite her lengthy chain of title, extending back well on to the beginning of the century. England's might proved the best title.

The history of this period is conveniently divided into three epochs, the first of which extends from the grant of King Charles to the Duke, in 1664, to the temporary re-conquest of the territory by the Dutch, in 1673; the second comprises the events incident to the second brief lease of power to the Dutch over the colonies, and the third includes the restoration of the Duke, the re-confirmation of his grant, and the absolute establishment of his laws.

By the King's letters patent, the Duke of York was granted the territory in and about the New Netherlands, to have and hold, "in free and common socage, and not in capite nor by knight service." The consideration named in the charter was the payment, within ninety days after demand, in each year, of forty beaver skins.

To the Duke, his deputies, agents, commissioners, and assigns, were given full and absolute power and authority "to correct, punish, pardon, govern, and rule," the inhabitants of the territory granted, "according to such laws, orders, ordinances, directions and instruments as by our said Dearest Brother or his Assigns shall be established, and in defect thereof in cases of necessity according to the good discretions of his Deputies, Commissioners, Officers or Assigns respectively as well in all causes and matters capital and criminal as civil both marine and others; So always as the said Statutes Ordinances and proceedings be not contrary to but as near as conveniently may be agreeable to the Laws, Statutes and Government of this our Realm of England; and saving and reserving to us our Heirs and Successors the receiving, hearing and determining of the Appeal and Appeals of all or any person or persons of in or belonging to the territories or islands aforesaid in or touching any judgment or sentence to be there made or given. And further, that it shall and may be lawful to and for our said Dearest Brother his Heirs and Assigns by these presents from time to time to nominate, make, constitute, ordain and confirm by such name or names stile or stiles, as to him or them shall seem good and likewise to revoke, discharge, change and alter as well all and singular Governors, Officers and Ministers which hereafter shall be by him or them

thought fit and needful to be made or used within the aforesaid parts and Islands. And also to make, ordain and establish all manner of orders, laws, directions, instructions, forms and ceremonies of Government and Magistracy fit and necessary for and concerning the Government of the territories and islands aforesaid so always as the same be not contrary to the laws and statutes of this our Realm of England but as near as may be agreeable thereunto. And the same at all times hereafter to put in execution or abrogate revoke or change not only within the precincts of the said territories or islands but also upon the seas in going and coming to and from the same as he or they in their good discretions shall think to be fittest for the good of the adventurers and inhabitants there. And we do further of our special grace, certain knowledge and mere motion grant, ordain and declare that such Governors, Officers and Ministers as from time to time shall be authorized and appointed in manner and form aforesaid shall and may have full power and authority to use and exercise Martial Law in cases of Rebellion, Insurrection and Mutiny in as large and ample manner as our Lieutenants in our Counties within our Realm of England have or ought to have by force of their commission of Lieutenantcy or any law or statute of this our Realm."1

Having obtained his grant, the Duke, on the 2d of April, 1664, issued a commission to Colonel Richard Nicolls, to be deputy governor over the territory in America, during his royal will and pleasure. All inhabitants in the country named were called upon to render obedience to the duly appointed deputy."2

By the King's appointment, with Colonel Nicolls, were associated Sir Robert Carre, Knight; George Cartwright, and Samuel Maverick, Esquires, as commissioners to visit, in turn, all of His Majesty's American colonies, and there to hear and determine all complaints and appeals, in military, criminal, and civil affairs, and so to proceed in all matters, that the peace and security of the country might be settled according to the instructions given them.3

In regard to the Dutch in and around Long Island, Colonel Nicolls and his fellow commissioners were, in their instructions, ordered to inform all persons interested that their design was to reduce those portions of the country under control of the Dutch to entire submission and obedience to the English government, now vested in the Duke of York, and so to determine affairs there that the Dutch should no longer monopolize the trade from that quarter, which they had wrongfully possessed themselves of, and continued to hold and exercise, without a shadow of right.*

It was left discretionary with the commissioners, whether they would first visit New England, or Long Island, but Long Island was suggested to be, properly, the first objective point, inasmuch as the troops which were to accompany the expedition might there find prompt employment. The commissioners, thus, in these and other particulars fully instructed, 1 Pa. Arch., Vol. V, p. 496. 2 Ibid, p. 509. Ibid, 508. 4Ibid, p. 501.