They had also a rude sort of corn-mill, at which slaves only were employed, on account of the severity of the labour. Mills moved by cattle, and by water, are more modern inventions.

5. Much care was paid by the Romans to the rearing of cattle. Sheep were secured under cover during winter, notwithstanding the mildness of the Italian climate. Shearing-time was a season of general festivity. Goats were made as profitable to the farmer as sheep: their hair was clipped every year, and woven into a kind of coarse stuff, and their milk was the chief supply of the dairy.

6. The Roman farmers were very superstitious. They refrained from all labour on the fifth day of the new moon; on the seventh and tenth they planted vines, and harnessed young oxen to the yoke; on the ninth they commenced a journey. The skeleton of an ass's head was hung up at the boundary of the farm, to enrich the soil, and prevent the effects of blight. The same figure carved in brass, and crowned with vines, was affixed as an ornament to their couches.

7. In the early ages of the republic, the gardens of the Romans contained only a few of the most common pot-herbs and fruit trees. Apples, cherries, and other delicious fruits, and many beautiful flowers, were introduced at a much later period, from Persia and Asia Minor. The style of ornamental gardening was heavy and formal, producing a gloomy shade, rather than displaying beautiful scenery. It was the fashion to fill the gardens with dark walks shaded with evergreens, loaded with statues, and bounded by high clipped hedges.

8. It is supposed that the Romans obtained a knowledge of the cultivation of the grape, and of the art of making wine, from Greece. They took great care of their vineyards, and laboured in cultivating the plants with much art and industry. The mode of gathering and pressing the grape was the same as that now practised. The

vintage was a time of festival, and the rustics made merry with the performance of a rude kind of comedy, and pouring out libations of new wine to Jupiter and Venus.

9. The wine appears to have differed from that of modern times; it was kept in jars formed like urns, some of which are said to have been so large as to have made, when filled, a load for a yoke of oxen. They were commonly ranged in cellars, but were sometimes buried in the earth, or even bedded in solid masonry. The wine was usually kept to a great age. It was held in less esteem than the wine of Greece, and was much cheaper.

QUESTIONS. 1. What were the early) occupations of the Romans? -2. Their mode of ploughing ?- -3. Their farm-houses? Other buildings?- -4. What kinds of grain were cultivated ?

5. What is said of cattle ? -6. Superstitions of the farmers? -7. Produce of the gardens? From what countries did the Romans. introduce the finer fruits and flowers? Ornamental gardening?8. What is said of the grape? Wine? The vintage? jars?

-9. Wine

CHAPTER LXXXVI. EUROPE continued.-Country houses. Description of Pliny's Villa. Aqueducts.

1. I SHALL now describe the villas, or country seats of the wealthy Romans. Originally, they were nothing more than very humble farm-houses; but with the progress of wealth and luxury, they were made by degrees more extensive and costly.

2. Some of them were surrounded with large parks, in which deer and various foreign wild animals were kept. Large fish-ponds were also not unfrequently attached to them, and were stocked at great expense. Generally, however, the villas were merely surrounded by gardens, and in size and appearance resembled those of modern Italy.

3. Pliny the younger, the philosopher, was a man of fortune, and the owner of four magnificent villas. Of two

of these he has left minute descriptions. One of them I will now describe to you.

4. The house was seated on a rising ground, facing the south, with the Apennine mountains in the distant background, and had a portico, with a terrace before it, adorned with various figures, and bounded by a hedge of box. Hence you passed by an easy descent into a lawn surrounded by walks, and adorned with box-trees, cut into the shapes of various animals.

5. Beyond this lawn you entered a ground for exercise, laid out in the form of a circus, ornamented with welltrimmed box and other shrubs, and fenced with a wall covered by box. On the outside of the wall was a meadow, and beyond were other meadows, fields, and thickets.

6. Opposite the portico stood a square edifice, which encompassed a small area or space, shaded by four plane trees, with a fountain in the midst. This apartment consisted of a bed-chamber and a dining room. portico looked out upon this little area.

A second

7. Another room, situated by the nearest plane tree, enjoyed constant greenness and shade. In the same building were dressing-rooms, porticoes, baths, and rooms for playing different games. The sides of one room were encrusted half-way with sculptured marble; thence, to the ceiling, branches of trees were painted, with birds intermixed with the foliage.

8. In front of these buildings and porticoes was [a spacious circus, surrounded by plane trees covered with ivy. Between these were planted box and bay trees, mingling their shade. The inward circular walks were perfumed with roses.

9. A thousand different and fantastic shapes were given to the box-hedges that bordered the straight and winding alleys that crossed the grounds. At the end of one of these walks was an alcove of white marble, shaded with vines, and supported by four pillars.

10. A fountain here emptied itself into a marble basin, contrived with so much art as to be always full without overflowing. Sometimes Pliny supped here with his friends, and then the basin served for a table, the larger vessels being placed about the margin, and the smaller ones swimming about in the form of little boats and waterfowl.

11. In front of the alcove stood a summer-house of exquisite marble, with projecting doors which opened into a green enclosure. Next to this was a private recess, furnished with a couch, and shaded by a spreading vine which reached to the top. Here, also, a fountain alternately rose and disappeared. In different parts of the walks were several marble seats, and throughout the whole circus were small rills to refresh the herbage.

12. Such is the description which Pliny the younger has given us of one of his villas. You will see that it was very magnificent, and there were many others throughout Italy of equal splendour. You will perceive by this, that the wealthy Romans lived in a style of great luxury in the time of the emperors.

13. It was not till the year 441 after its foundation, that is, in the year 312 before Christ, that Rome obtained its supplies of water by means of aqueducts. They afterwards became so numerous, that it has been calculated they furnished the city with five hundred thousand hogsheads every day. They were built of brick, and were sometimes thirty, forty, and even sixty miles in length.

14. The water was conveyed to reservoirs, and thence distributed through metal pipes over the city in great abundance. Only three aqueducts now remain for modern Rome; yet so pure are the sources from which they draw their supplies, that few cities can boast of such clear and healthful water.

15. Great attention was paid to ornament in the erection of the aqueducts. One built by Agrippa, in the

reign of Augustus, contained one hundred and thirty reservoirs, and five hundred fountains, adorned with statues and columns. The remains of many of these great works, in various countries, bear witness to this day of their beauty and convenience.

QUESTIONS. 1. What of the Roman villas ?-3. Pliny the younger?-4. Describe his villa.- -5. Ground for exercise ?

8.

6. Edifice opposite the portico? Rooms of this building?. Circus ?- -10. Fountain? Basin?-11. Summer-house? Other ornaments ?- -13. Aqueducts? Quantity of water carried daily to the city? Their length? -15. Aqueduct built by Agrippa? Remains of other aqueducts?

CHAPTER LXXXVII. EUROPE continued.-Military Affairs of the Romans. The Imperial Eagle. Music. Arms. Dress. Military Rewards. Naval Affairs. Galleys. Merchant-ships. Wild Beasts in the Amphitheatre. Gladiators.

Legionary and Light-armed Soldier.

1. You have been already told that the Romans were almost continually engaged in wars. Their military