QUESTIONS. 2. What are despotie monarchies? What are limited monarchies?-3. How are republies governed? 4. From what did the first kind of government spring?5. What of the patriarchal form of government? What was the second kind of government? 6. What did the people desire as society advanced?-7. How did republies arise? 8. What of the first kind of government? Second?—9. What of the third kind, or monarchical government?- -10. What of the republican form of government? What of the Greeks? What of Rome ? CHAPTER CLXXVII. GENERAL VIEWS continued.- 1. THE first habitations of man were such as nature suggested, just sufficient to satisfy his wants; huts, grottoes, and tents. As civilization advanced, men began to build more durable and commodious habitations; they fitted the stones or bricks together more neatly, but at first without any cement. After they had learned how to build houses, they began to erect temples for their gods, which were much larger and finer than their own habitations. 2. Architecture appears to have been one of the earliest inventions, and its works have been regulated by hereditary imitation. Whatever rude structure the climate or materials of any country forced the first inhabitants to construct, the same form was kept up in after years by their more refined posterity. 3. Thus the Egyptian style of building derived its origin from the cavern and mound; the Chinese from the tent; the Grecian from the wooden cabin; and the Gothic from the bower of trees. Architecture at length became a fine art, and much pains was bestowed upon temples and palaces. Colonnades, halls, and courts, soon appeared; the rough trunk was transformed into the lofty column, and the natural vault of the cavern into the splendid pantheon. 4. The first nations who paid attention to architecture were the Babylonians, who built the temple of Belus and the hanging gardens; the Assyrians, who filled Nineveh with splendid buildings; the Phoenicians, whose cities were adorned with magnificent structures; and the Israelites, whose temple was wonderful for its magnitude and its splendour. Of the Egyptian and Persian architecture we have many remains, and they are all in a style of great grandeur and of gigantic dimensions. 5. The Greeks first introduced a more simple and dignified style of building, called the Doric order. The Ionic and Corinthian orders were soon added to the Doric. After the Peloponnesian war, this noble simplicity gave place to the excess of ornament; and after the death of Alexander, 323 years before Christ, the art declined, and was afterwards but little cultivated in Greece. 6. The Romans had paid some attention to architecture, but did not equal the Greeks till the time of Augustus, who encouraged Greek artists to erect splendid buildings in Rome; but when the seat of government was removed to Constantinople, the art declined in Rome. About this time, the Roman or Composite column originated, which was employed in temples and splendid buildings. 7. These beautiful works of art were almost entirely destroyed by the Goths and Vandals; but Theodoric, a friend of the arts, endeavoured to restore them, and even erected several new ones. This is the era of the origin of modern art, and the style of building it introduced is called Gothic architecture. 8. The first mention of agriculture is found in the writings of Moses. From them we learn that Cain was a "tiller of the ground," and that Noah "began to be a husbandman, and planted a vineyard." 9. The Chinese, Japanese, Chaldeans, and Egyptians, appear to have held husbandry in high estimation in the earliest ages. The Carthaginians of later times were sensible of its blessings, and carried the art to a high degree of perfection. The implements of Grecian agriculture were few and simple; the Romans used many implements, but particularly venerated the plough. 10. Gardening, for the production of culinary vegetables, appears to have received attention in all ages and countries where the people had advanced to a state of civilization. Ornamental gardening, or the art of laying out grounds with walks, and fountains, and groves, and beautiful shrubs, plants and flowers, and disposing them all in such a manner as to produce a pleasing effect, can only belong to a refined people. 11. The hanging gardens of Semiramis, which consisted of terraces of earth raised upon pillars, and set out with plants, watered by artificial means, were very wonderful, but they could hardly be considered beautiful. 12. The Greeks do not appear to have carried the art of ornamental gardening to any great extent; and the style of ornamental gardening among the Romans, as you may have observed faom the account I have given you of Pliny's villa, was highly artificial, but not pleasing. 13. The whole art of ornamental gardening appears to have been banished from Europe from the time that the barbarians overspread its southern regions, till Charlemagne did something towards its revival. 14. In the time of Louis the Fourteenth a new style was introduced into France. According to this, the grounds were artificially laid out in straight walks, crossing each other at right angles, bordered by trees cut into formal shapes, and interspersed with fountains. 15. This artificial, but absurd style, was afterwards introduced into Holland, England, and other countries. But, at a later period, it was ascertained that the Chinese and Japanese had followed, for ages, a more natural style of ornamental gardening. They collected the most beautiful flowers, the finest shrubs, and the fairest trees, and planted them in irregular groups. They sought, as far as possible, to imitate the most beautiful and pleasing arrangements of nature. This system was introduced into England about a hundred years ago, and nothing can exceed the effect produced. QUESTIONS. 1. What of the first habitations of man? What was done as civilization advanced?- -2. What of architecture? 3. Mention the different styles of building. What of architecture at length ? -4. What people first paid attention to architecture ? What of Egyptian and Persian architecture?- -5. What of the Greeks? Their architecture ?- -6. What of the Roman architecture ?- -7. What of the Goths and Vandals? Theodoric? Gothic architecture?- -8. What mention is made of agriculture in Scripture? -9. What of the agriculture of different kingdoms ?What of gardening? Ornamental gardening ?- 11. What of the gardens of Semiramis ?- -12. What of the Greeks? The Romans? -13. How was gardening banished from Europe? it ?-14. What of the style under Louis the Fourteenth ?—15. What of gardening in China and Japan? In England? -10. Who revived CHAPTER CLXXVIII. GENERAL VIEWS continued.- 1. THE first mention made of nations trading one with another appears in the book of Genesis, chapter xxxviii, verse 25, when Joseph's brethren sold him to a band of Ishmaelites, who were conveying spices, balm, and myrrh, into Egypt; the balm was from Gilead, and the myrrh was the produce of Arabia, and they were going through the land of Canaan into Egypt, which was then a highly cultivated kingdom. 2. The central situation of Egypt has always made it the emporium of commerce, and the treasures of Asia and Africa were brought thither by caravans. Trade was always held in esteem, because of the wealth it brought; but of the maritime trade of the Egyptians, we have no regular account, for they superstitiously neglected the sea for many ages. 3. Tyre and Sidon, cities of Phoenicia, are next found rising into notice. Their country was not rich in its productions; industry alone made their rocks productive; they conveyed their merchandise from port to port, and commerce, by feeding industry, was itself enriched. 4. About eleven hundred years before Christ, in the time of David, the Phoenicians, in the true spirit of commerce, extended their voyages, and finding gold mines in Spain, they formed a settlement for the purpose of trade, called Gadir, now Cadiz. 5. Solomon saw the advantage of commerce, and caused ships to be built, which he sent to Ophir (supposed to be the East Indies), which brought back gold, silver, ivory, birds, and other things. He also carried on a great traffic with Egypt, whence he obtained horses and fine linen. 6. Tyre was famous for its commerce in the time of Solomon, about 1000 years before Christ. We read an interesting account of her commerce and splendour, four hundred years later, in the 26th, 27th, and 28th chapters of Ezekiel, But the Tyrians were subdued first by Nebuchadnezzar, and afterwards more completely by Alexander, 332 years before Christ. 7. About 870 years before Christ, Carthage was built, and became famous for her commerce throughout the civilized world. After many wars with the Romans, Carthage was destroyed, 146 years before Christ. 8. At one time, the Grecian states were conspicuous for their attention to commerce and naval affairs. Corinth, Corcyra, Athens, and Sparta, in turn became famous, and remained so till the overthrow of Grecian independence, three hundred years before Christ. 9. Alexander paid great attention to commercial affairs, and built the cities of Alexandria and Berenice, at which |