places he carried on an extensive trade, with the West by means of the Mediterranean Sea, with the richer provinces of the East by the Red Sea, and with the central countries of Asia, by the isthmus of Suez.

10. The Romans were ignorant of the value of commerce, and, as if they were determined to root it out, they destroyed in the same year both Carthage and Corinth, then the two greatest commercial cities in the world. Great stagnation of commerce followed, which was felt by all the surrounding countries, till the time of Julius Cæsar, who determined to revive it, and restored in one year both Corinth and Carthage.

11. As the Romans were now masters of all the countries bordering on the Mediterranean, they began to favour commerce for their own sake. They therefore obtained supplies from all the regions round about, to minister either to their necessities or their luxuries. The return they made for these various and choice articles was in money, and therefore this interchange can hardly be called commerce. Indeed the Romans were never a commercial people; they despised the character of a merchant, and wished to rule and obtain riches only by the sword.

12. After the seat of government was removed to Constantinople, Theodoric became king of Italy, and under his wise and peaceful reign, commerce began again to flourish. In the East, silk began to be a great article of commerce, and the Persians enriched themselves very much by their trade with ships from India, which stopped at their ports.

13. In the year 732, Venice began to pay attention to commerce, and commenced an extensive traffic with the East. Many other states in Italy also carried on a large trade with different countries, and in the eleventh century, Amalfi, Pisa, and Genoa, became distinguished as commercial cities.

14. Our Saxon ancestors carried on a considerable com

merce, and King Alfred is said to have traded to India. After the Norman conquest, our trade steadily increased with the increasing power of the country.

15. The crusades we find giving the next spur to commerce. The crusaders, finding in the East many luxuries that they could not procure at home, imbibed a taste for these foreign commodities; commerce therefore began to extend itself with rapidity.

16. In the twelfth century, the discovery of the property of the magnet, by the seamen of Amalfi, caused the extension of commerce to a degree before unknown. About this time the English and the Flemings were the most commercial people of the north of Europe.

17. In 1241, Hamburg, Lubeck, and several other German towns, began to engage in commerce, and entered into a league for mutual defence. They were called Hanse towns, and became very rich and powerful. Edward the First of England allowed them great privileges in trade, which were, however, curtailed under Edward the Sixth.

18. In the time of Elizabeth, another blow was struck at their commerce, by the establishment of an English company of Merchant Adventurers; but in spite of all, they became so formidable, that the governments of several states entered into a league against them, which resulted in their power being weakened and finally sunk, in 1662.

19. About the year 1251, we find Florence rising into notice, in a commercial point of view. Its trade was immense, and its fabrics beautiful and costly. The merchants amassed great wealth, and became the bankers of all Europe. This state of splendour continued for centuries.

20. Flanders was for some time the seat of the principal manufactories of Europe. As far back as the year 960, we find the Flemings trading to great advantage. In 1253, they were famous for their linens, and they continued

eminent for their manufactures till 1584, when Antwerp was destroyed by the Duke of Parma. This put an end to the prosperity of the country, and her fine manufactures. were dispersed among other nations.

21. Hitherto, the trade with India had been carried on over-land by caravans by the Italian republics, but in 1497, a passage being found round the Cape of Good Hope, the way was now open to wealth and luxury. In the year 1500, the Portuguese began to make settlements in Africa, and soon after Portugal became the centre of commerce, till 1580, when the kingdom was seized by the King of Spain.

22. The trade between England and Flanders was very considerable, from the time of John to that of Edward the First; but, at that time, the rivalry between the English and Flemings became so fierce, that many battles were fought, and all commercial intercourse suspended. In 1331, however, it was again revived under Edward the Third, who introduced into England the manufacture of woollen cloth.

23. In the reign of Henry the Eighth, the Reformation was of great service to commerce; and in the time of Edward the Sixth, a trade was entered into with Russia. Queen Elizabeth greatly encouraged commerce. She formed several trading companies, one to Russia, and another to Turkey and the Levant. The East India company, also, began during her reign, in the year 1600.

QUESTIONS. 1. What is the first mention made of trade? 2. What of Egypt? Its commerce?- -3. What of Tyre and Sidon? -4. What of the Phoenicians? Cadiz ?- -5. With what countries did Solomon trade? -6. What of Tyre ?- -7. What of Carthage ?8. What of Grecian commerce? Corinth ? Corcyra? Athens? Sparta? -9. What of Alexander? 10. How was commerce destroyed ?- -11. What did the Romans do in favour of commerce ?-12. What of commerce under Theodoric? In the East? Persia ?-13. What of Venice? Pisa ? Genoa ?-14. What of the rise of commerce in England?

-16. What of the mariner's compass?

15. What of the Crusades? 17. What of the Hanse towns?- -19. What of Florence? 20. What of the commerce of Flanders? What destroyed it? 21. What of trade with India? In Portugal ?- -22. What of commerce in England?-23. What queen gave great encouragement to commerce ?

CHAPTER CLXXIX.

GENERAL VIEWS continued.

Painting, Sculpture and Music.

1. EGYPT was the birthplace of the arts and sciences; many of its paintings are still found in the cavern tombs and temples. The earliest account we have of the existence of painting is in the reign of Ninus, about two thousand years before Christ. The Greeks were very little advanced in the art of painting at the time of the Trojan war.

2. The first important fact in the history of painting is, that about 700 years before Christ a King of Lydia purchased a picture of a Greek artist, and paid him its weight in gold. In the year 400, Zeuxis introduced a new style of painting into Greece, and at this period much progress was made in the art. About the year 328 before Christ, Apelles commenced a new era in painting, and many distinguished painters were his contemporaries.

3. Before Greece was conquered by the Romans, the art of painting had arrived at a high degree of perfection; but the ceaseless wars which prevailed for some time before that event, prevented any further progress being made.

4. The first name worthy of record in the annals of Italian painting is Cimabue, a native of Florence, who painted in fresco, 1300 years after Christ. Leonardo da Vinci, an eminent early painter, who also wrote treatises on his art, was born at Florence, in 1445. Shortly before his time the art of oil painting was discovered by John Van Eyck, a Fleming.

5. Michael Angelo Buonaroti was born in the year

1474; he erected an academy of painting and sculpture at Florence, and is considered as the founder of the Florentine school. Raphael, born 1483, was the founder of the Roman school; Titian, born 1477, was the founder of the Venetian school. Corregio, born 1494, founded the Lombard school. The establishment of these four schools embraces the golden era of painting in Italy.

6. The French, Flemish, Germans and English have all produced excellent painters, but none equal to the great masters of Italy. Whoever wishes to see the finest productions of the pencil, must visit the galleries of Rome, Florence and Naples.

7. The antiquity of sculpture is proved by reference to the Bible, where, in the books of Genesis and Exodus, we read of Laban's images, of the golden calf made by Aaron, and of the statues of the cherubim. Herodotus tells us that the Egyptians first carved figures of animals in stone. Almost all the sculpture of Egypt was employed for idolatrous purposes; it was of stupendous magnitude. The pyramids, colossal statues, and Sphynx, are gigantic works of art, and strike those who behold them with astonishment. Egypt continued famous for sculpture, even in the time of the Romans. Hindoo sculpture strongly resembles that of Egypt, but is generally inferior. Chinese sculpture also slightly resembles the Egyptian.

8. Dædalus, who lived 1300 years before Christ, may be considered the earliest sculptor of Greece, as before his time the attempts at the art were rude and imperfect, though there were schools established at Sicyon, Ægina, Corinth, and Athens. The first statues were made of wood, and metal was also used in many cases for sculpture.

9. About 646 years before Christ statues in marble were executed, and a school, called the Chian school, was founded by Malas, in Greece. The marble was procured from the Ionian islands, where a school was established