some of the single-crop types; all intensive and special types are likely to develop in any region, as they are controlled less by natural factors than by economic and personal ones.

The leading crops of the United States in 1905 measured by money value, as displayed by the Secretary of Agriculture, were as follows:

Corn, 2,708,000,000 bushels, with a probable total value of $1,216,000,000. "No other crop is worth more than half as much."

Hay, with a valuation of $605,000,000, due to high prices rather than highest yields.
Cotton, including seed, with a value "expected to rise well toward $575,000,000."

Wheat, 684,000,000 bushels, only once exceeded in the United States, and of the highest value ($525,000,000) ever produced.

Oats, 939,000,000 bushels, which is 50,000,000 below the crop of 1902, which was the largest crop; value, $282,000,000.

Potatoes, falling below the highest previous production, 1904, by 72,000,000 bushels, valued at $138,000,000.

Barley, 133,000,000 bushels, with a value of $58,000,000.

Tobacco, sugar-cane and sugar-beets, and rice, follow in order.

The acreage in improved land in farms classified by principal source of income on June 1, 1900, and the values of products for 1899, are given as follows, by the Twelfth Census; and also the acreage, production and value of eight specified cereals in 1899:

Fig. 9. Map showing the movement of centers of population from 1790 to 1900, and of centers of farms, agricultural products and manufactures from 1850 to 1900. The map shows the middle states from the seacoast to western Missouri and Iowa. O, number of farms; U, farm values; T, total areas in farms; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, oats production; A, corn production; N. wheat production; E, population; M, manufacture. The centers have moved steadily westward for each decade, except in the cases of oats and corn. The center of oat production moved northeastward between 1850 and 1860 (1-2); center of corn production moved slightly northeastward between 1890 and 1900. (Adapted from Census.)

The regions of greatest productiveness of corn, hay and forage, and cotton, as based on yields per square mile, are indicated in Figs. 11, 12 and 13. They are adapted from the Statistical Atlas of the Twelfth Census, 1900.

Live-stock.

The live-stock interest has shifted to the westward within the past generation. This does not signify, however, that the middle and western regions are naturally best adapted to live-stock or that

Fig. 10. Forest regions of the United States. (United States Department of Agriculture.)

the center of the industry is to persist there. It is rather the result of cheap land or public range, and also to the proximity of the corn-belt. The northeastern states and provinces, and the elevated lands of the Appalachian region to the southward, are better grazing lands so far as natural production of grass and abundance of water are concerned. With the developing of stall-feeding, the concentrated foods have come to be of unaccustomed importance. The corn products, producing some of these foods, are more cheaply grown in the mid-continental region, and eastern farmers have come to rely on them from this source. With the development of live-stock-raising in the corn-belt, however, more of these products will be used where they are grown. Stock-growing will develop more rapidly than corngrowing, for it is adaptable to a much wider area. Moreover, some of the corn is now shipped west to supply animals that are fed on the ranges instead of being shipped east to be put in condition. These facts will tend to increase the price of corn to the eastern farmer. With his excellent and abundant pasturage and hay, and ability to grow annual forage crops, the eastern man must now begin to produce his own concentrates or products that may take the place of them. The eastern states produce relatively over-heavily of hay and forage, and some of the central states over-heavily of concentrates. According to the Twelfth Census, the hay and forage crops of New York, for example, constituted nearly two-fifths of the value of all crops in the state, not including pasture, and more than one-eighth of the value of all the hay and forage crops in the United States. New York produces about one and three-fourths tons of hay per animal unit (approximately 1,000 pounds live weight of animal); Illinois produces threefourths of a ton. New York produces about 800 pounds of grain concentrates per animal unit; Illinois produces 4,800 pounds.

There are a number of ways in which these new feeding demands may be met; some of them are as follows: by raising alfalfa, which is now extending rapidly eastward; by the more general growing of other and special forage crops; by means of root-crops; by the breeding of races of corn, clover and other crops that will be specially adapted to the East and the South.

The value of live animals sold in the United States in the Census report of 1900 was $722,913,114. The value of live-stock on farms, as reported by the same Census, was as follows:

The great growth of cities has been the reason of the developing of a new and more effective kind of dairying. Trains carrying only milk are now run to the large cities, often from very long distances. Dairy manufacture has come to be a prominent part of the instruction in agricultural colleges. Laws designed to protect and encourage the dairy business have been enacted. The coöperative creamery system, the butter factories and skimming stations, have greatly stimulated the business, and they are likely to set on foot new social movements. The production of butter and cheese reported by the Twelfth Census of the United States was as follows:

The total production of cheese in 1899 from farms and factories amounted to 298,344,654 pounds.

The development of the dairy industry has been conditioned chiefly on three factors aside from the breeding of the animals themselves the rise of markets; good natural pasturage; the perfecting of the silo, whereby the winter production of milk is increased. New kinds of buildings are now demanded,

and these may be expected to modify profoundly many of the inherited ideas of farming. Dairying has not yet developed extensively in the South; although all live-stock industries are now receiving new attention there and will greatly increase.

As reported by the Twelfth Census, 1900, three states have more than a million dairy cows:-New York, 1,501,608; Iowa, 1,423,648; Illinois, 1,007,664. In yield of milk, two states produce more than onehalf billion gallons: New York, 772,799,352; Iowa, 535,872,240. In farm value of dairy produce, six states exceed twenty-five millions of dollars: New York, $55,474,155; Pennsylvania, $35,860,110; Illinois, $29,638,619; Iowa, $27,516,870; Wisconsin, $26,779,721; Ohio, $25,383,627. In number of farms deriving the chief source of income in 1899 from dairy produce, there are three states standing above twenty-five thousand: New York, 67,457 farms; Pennsylvania, 32,600; Wisconsin, 25,246. In the above categories, only three states south of the Ohio river are included in a list of the first ten, and these three-Missouri, Arkansas, Texas-stand at or near the foot of the lists, if included at all. The only marked exception is in the category of number of dairy cows, when Texas stands sixth.

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Fig. 11. Continuous section showing highest production of corn per square mile (3,200 bushels and above).

Horticultural interests.

Fruit-growing has now escaped the small orchard that formed one of the subdivisions of a farm, and has come to be a farm business by itself. The most marked departure in very recent years has been the extension of the business on a large scale into Georgia, Texas and other southern states. We are no longer bound so closely to "fruit belts" as we were in the past. Systems of transportation, storage, refrigeration and marketing have been worked out; and the manufacture of fruit products has grown to large proportions. We shall probably see a large extension of some kinds of fruit-growing to the remoter cheap lands.

Some of the statistics of fruit products in the United States for the years 1899 and 1889 are given below:

Other horticultural industries are also escaping the old conventional forms of dependent or accessory avocations and are becoming independent occupations, practiced on a large scale. This is true even

Fig. 12. Areas of highest productiveness of hay and forage per square mile (100 tons and above).

of glass-house industries, which are now conducted on a basis comparable with that of high-class field farming.

Exports.

The agricultural exports of the United States have about trebled in twenty-five years. While this is a measure of the excess of production over consumption and is a mark of national prosperity, it may or may not represent permanent increased efficiency in farming. It may be expressive of extent of land brought under cultivation. The following figures show the

total values of exports of the leading products of domestic agriculture for a series of years, as given in the Report on Commerce and Navigation of the United States, 1904:

"Animals" includes cattle, sheep, hogs. "Provisions" includes bacon and hams, pork, lard, beef products, all other meat products, dairy products. The total includes also cotton (raw), breadstuffs, tobacco (unmanufactured).

Education.

Every state and territory in the Union has an institution in which agricultural education is provided for at public expense. The greater part of these institutions are founded on the federal Land Grant Act of 1862. Every state and territory also has an agricultural experiment station established on federal funds. Each of the states and territories receives $15,000 annually from the act of 1887, known as the Hatch Act; and additional funds, which will shortly duplicate these, are now accruing from the Adams Act of 1906. Two of the states (New York and Connecticut) have two separately organized experiment stations, one maintained by state funds; and many of the states supplement the federal funds. The location of these educational and experiment institutions is given with the descriptions of the various states on subsequent pages.

The federal government maintains a Department of Agriculture, the Secretary being a member of the President's Cabinet. This Department received appropriations of considerably more than six million dollars in 1905. It has a staff of more than five thousand persons, about half of whom are scientists and scientific assistants. Many of the states maintain efficient departments of agriculture, engaged in educational, inspectional, police and regulatory work.

Fig. 13. The main cotton-producing region of the
United States. (Twelfth Census.)

There are a few special schools engaged chiefly in secondary agricultural educational work, some of them on private foundations and others maintained by public funds. The number of such schools in the

United States that are now well established and effective probably does not much exceed a dozen. The public schools are interesting themselves in agricultural education, and agricultural knowledge is being shaped into teaching form; but no consistent method of secondary instruction in agriculture has yet been developed. It is to be expected that within ten years the experiment of teaching these subjects will have been well tried and some definite experience put into systematic form. There is everywhere a radical change in the philosophy of teaching, some of it characterized by the term nature-study, whereby the child is educated in terms of his own experience; and this is preparing the way for profound modifications in the schools.

The rise of agricultural sentiment.

Agriculture was once the dominant industry. For fifty years it has been overshadowed by the great growth of manufacture and merchandizing and the consequent rise of cities. The movement has been centripetal. A marked centrifugal movement is now well set in: it has almost become a fashion to own a farm. Whatever the extent and duration of this outward movement may be, it will have a permanent effect on public sentiment. The most hopeful change, however, is the pronounced rise in agricultural sentiment among the farmers themselves. Appropriations of public funds for agricultural purposes are no longer stinted in amount or narrow in policy. A liberal and general public appreciation of rural affairs has again arisen. We may expect endowments to be given for agricultural institutions as in the past they have been given to other objects.

It is not to be expected or hoped that the cityward movement will cease, but only that a sane selective process may arise, whereby it will be possible and popular for a person to live from the land. The cityward movement is world-wide. According to William Z. Ripley, in "The Races of Europe," "the impelling forces are reducible mainly to economic and social factors. Most powerful of these movements of population to-day is the constant trend from the rural districts to the city. Its origin is perfectly apparent. Economically it is induced by the advantages of coöperation in labor; perhaps it would be nearer the truth to say, by the necessity of aggregation imposed by nineteenth-century industrialism. This economic incentive to migration to the towns is strengthened by the social advantages of urban life, the attractions of the crowd; often potent enough in themselves, as we know, to hold people to the tenement despite the opportunity for advancement, expansion or superior comfort afforded elsewhere outside the city walls. The effect of these two combined motives, the economic plus the social, is to produce a steady drift of population toward the towns." The correctives of this tendency to move to town are of three sorts: a rise in the earning-power of the farm; betterment of social conditions in the country; a more sensitive personal appreciation of the desirable ends in life. The rise of the agricultural industries will call for some radical readjustments of public policies. It is probable that we shall find ourselves agreeing that the country (as distinguished from the city) has certain rights that we have not thought of as belonging to it. There are also mutual obligations that are practically untouched. If it is true, for example, that farm produce carries necessary plant-food from the land (to cite one illustration out of many), then it follows that all mankind is concerned. The fertility is transported to the cities, and discharged into sewers. The fertility is not only wasted, but the waste pollutes the streams. Eventually these materials may need to be treated at public expense and perhaps returned to the land. One-half the population of the United States feeds the other half of non-producers. The producers would seem to have a right to the recovery of the fertility; or, at all events, the state would seem to be under obligations to consider the feasibility of recovering it in its own interest. The customary economic and social questions need to be re-studied from the agricultural or country-life point of view. Everything indicates the probability that the farmer is coming to his own; and he will now hold every advance that he attains.

The rise of agricultural sentiment is well reflected in the numbers of new books and periodicals. Some of these express only an extrinsic and reportorial interest in the subject, but they are nevertheless indicative of the time. There are many serious new books of permanent scientific value, representing the real progress and the genuine sentiment in agricultural affairs. These books and the agricultural periodicals are now indispensable to any farmer who expects to master his business. Most of the books deal with special topics. It is somewhat remarkable that there is so little cyclopedic treatment of agricultural subjects in this country. There is only one current American work of this nature, Wilcox and Smith's "Farmer's Cyclopedia of Agriculture," New York, 1905, a condensed, reliable and useful work in one volume.