the place is. But the mere street fence of the old time is gone, and the presumption is against the fence rather than for it. Very likely we have often gone too far in the obliterating of fences, throwing our home grounds open to unseemly publicity; but this is a subject which concerns itself with our point of view toward the type of living and toward the rights of the public, more than with fences themselves. If an inclosure is wanted for personal or architectural reasons, it is usually a wall rather than a fence that is needed. The farm fence. In the open country a different class of problems arises. Here the fence is distinctly useful; and yet, how many of the fences on most old farms are really needed? The extent of fencing in any country is governed to a large extent by the amount of native material available for fence construction; and yet the eastern farms were fenced beyond all relationship to mere cheapness of materials. The fencing on many an old New York or New England farm was worth as much in original cost and effort as the buildings. Now these fences are being removed. This marks the passing of an old style of agriculture. The small "mowings" and "plowings" and permanent fields are giving way to larger pasture ranges, or to soiling systems, or to rotations, or to other features of a rapidly changing industry. The relative absence of fences in the Middle West is due not only to a scarcity of stone and timber, but also to a different theory of farming. On farms, fencing is governed by its usefulness. The roadside fence is passing, because it is not needed and because it entails expense, rather than because it is unattractive. The fence is being gradually eliminated in all kinds of farming that does not produce live-stock. The relative amount of capital that can be put in fences is now a subject of careful consideration in all advanced teaching of farm management; and the general tendency is to reduce it, not only from the point of view of cost of fence, but of the area of land that is occupied. In many parts of the country there is a growing tendency toward untidy fence-areas, due to the scarcity of labor; and the reduction of the fences has a bearing on the cleanliness of the farm. In this regard, the wire fence marks a distinct advance. The quantity and style of fence have very close relation with the organization of the farm, since the fence follows the rotation or the crop or the utilization of a given piece of land. With the development of more elasticity in farm practice, fences have come to be temporary or movable in many cases. They are no longer so rigidly characteristic of "fields" as they were; and the more business-like management expresses itself in the straighter and directer fences, with less waste land accompanying them. A wide fence-row is indicative of cheap land. While the general tendency has been to reduce the extent of fencing, nevertheless fences are just as important to good agriculture as they ever have been; but they should be directed in every instance by reason rather than erected as a concession to usage. Fig. 357. An example of well-laid stone wall. The observant traveler can find few more interesting subjects of observation than the kind and the relative abundance of fences in the various parts of the country. It is astonishing how many kinds of fences it is possible to construct. The stone wall (which often literally dilapidates into a stone pile), the stump fence, the rail fence, the wire fence, these all suggest the general character of the region and something of the type of its farming industries. The picket-inclosed garden is often a token of the old idea of a garden as a precious bit of "beds" and plots where accessory and incidental things are grown. Nowadays we have come to think of a garden as a straight-away and resourceful and regular part of a complete farm enterprise. The different kinds of fences also indicate the stage of mechanical ingenuity and skill of a community. Persons desiring to read on fences should consult, aside from chapters in farm books, the following: The Home and Farm Manual, N. D. Thompson & Co.; Farm Buildings, Sanders Publishing Co., Chicago; Fences, Gates and Bridges, Orange Judd Co., N. Y.; Yearbook 1901, 1904, United States Department of Agriculture, and Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 235 and 239. The farm fence has shown a constant evolution. At first constructed of the crude and heavy materials of the neighborhood,-logs, stumps, stones, brush, rails, it has now come to be made of wellselected manufactured materials, not only because the native material is becoming scarce but also because of the necessity of economizing both labor and land. The old fence occupied great strips of land, as witness the stone wall and the worm fence; and the resulting fence-row widened the area. In some countries the lessening supply of material has emphasized the value of the hedge, but this fence has never become popular in this country, not even for ornament. Other questions aside, we can not afford the labor required to keep a hedge in good condition, nor the space that it occupies, nor the moisture and plantfood that it appropriates. One by one the various kinds of fencing are passing away, except only the wire fence, of many patterns, and this is becoming characteristic of the farming country. Fig. 358. A good mode of securing a cross-wire. The fence is not only important for the inclosing of fields, but it gives character to a farm. It may or may not be a thing of beauty. It is one of the first objects to impress a visitor, and it often causes him to form an estimate, possibly unconsciously, of the nature and value of the farm. This impression may not arise so much from the particular kind of fence as from the way in which it is put up, the care it has received, and the many little features that cause it to look important and tidy or unimportant. The arrangement of fences. The arrangement of fences must follow the arrangement of fields. Therefore, the fence question involves the fundamental plan of the farm. The shape of the field also modifies the length of fence. Irregular fields may not only require much fence, but the fencing may be difficult to manage, and the fields usually have cramped or unattractive appearance. The small field is fast giving way to the demands of modern farm machinery. The long, narrow field is better adapted to the larger machines; and this, with the necessity in many cases for longer and narrower fields in order that all may be brought near the buildings, is fast determining the general proportions of the subdivisions. The passing of the many small, irregularfenced fields is greatly simplifying the fence problem. The arrangement of the fences has received lit tle attention, and no system has been evolved, as evidenced by the utter lack of similarity in fencing on farms in a community growing the same crops in the same rotation, and having like requirements. Beyond question there is a plan for farmfencing more economically suited to the farm than the present usage. It is apparent that, when the fields are to be fenced, the fencing for a threeyear rotation will not be adapted to a five-year rotation and allow regularity of crops each year. Crop rotation is a potent factor in altering the old fence-row. The scheme of fencing the stock rather than the fields, which is gaining in favor and is most commendable, is further influencing the system of farm-fencing. Farming land is more productive and more easily tilled when not pastured. Allowing for half of the line-fences and one side fronting the public road, it requires 400 rods of fence to surround a quarter-section, or 160 acres. The same tract divided into 40-acre fields requires 720 rods of fence, or into 10-acre fields 1,360 rods. Estimating the cost of fence at one dollar per rod, the expense of fencing small fields is astonishing. The estimated life of a farm fence is only fifteen years, with an annual repair of 10 per cent on the first cost. When it is remembered that money placed in a fence is never replaced directly, and that otherwise it could be placed at perpetual compound interest, the fence problem becomes a serious one. The kinds of fences. While in the farming sections one may find fences of many kinds and constructions, some of which well-nigh bar description, three kinds only are in common use: the board fence, the barbed-wire or simple-strand fence, and the woven wire fence. Of these, the board fence is fast disappearing, the high price of timber at all fit for fencing making its use uneconomical. The barbed wire fence has been used very widely, but is falling into disfavor, and is being supplanted by the woven wire fence. The latter Fig. 359. Tie-back brace for fence post. has demonstrated its worth as a fence for ordinary farm fields, and will find an increasing place on the farms. A good farm fence must possess the qualities of strength and durability, elasticity and lightness; and of course it must be high enough, strong enough, and closely enough woven to fulfil the objects required of it. No one of these factors can be overlooked without lessening the utility of the fence. Cheapness in fencing material may not always recommend it. The farmer has demanded a cheap wire and the market has produced it; after a few years the poor grade of wire is useless from the rust. On the other hand, the old wrought-iron wire that was used in fences a quarter-century ago is well preserved and cannot be broken without much twisting. The durability of a wire fence depends not only on the galvanized coating, but on the character of the metal itself. Progressive farmers who take pride in the appearance of their farms will continue to be dissatisfied with fencing which turns red with rust in a year or two, even if it remains stock-tight for a very much longer period. To manufacture a durable wire with an efficient protective coating presents a problem which is being carefully studied and discussed by metallurgists and progressive manufacturers. of the same strength as one larger one must have more exposed surface, and the wire will weaken sooner by rusting. Ratchets for tightening the wires from one or both ends were .once generally Fig. 361. A good mode of anchoring and bracing the end post. used, but of late years comparatively few have been sold. They must be loosened to allow for contraction; this is seldom attended to, even by the most careful farmers. The web of the fence is also of importance. Some otherwise practical fences have too light Fig. 360. A durable wire fence, specially adapted to confining small stock. There is good reason to believe that the future will show a great improvement in the lasting quality of this sort of fencing. If the fence is to be lasting and serviceable, provision must be made for the contraction and expansion of the wire with changes of temperature. The most satisfactory method has been that of coiling each horizontal wire, under high tension, into a long spiral spring. The high carbon spring wire responds to this method to perfection, as demonstrated in fences now in use for many years. The satisfaction given by such fences has created a demand for the same method at a lower price. A cheaper grade of soft wire has been given the same treatment and woven into fences that are in common use. Such wire soon loses its elasticity and becomes loose between the posts. Another common provision for the changes due to temperature is to twist two wires, as in barbed-wire; this is satisfactory for a number of years, yet two wires stay wires. The weakest part will represent the real strength of the fence. For a general farm fence, cross-wires should not be less than No. 12 wire, and of the same quality as the horizontal wires. Many ways of attaching cross - wires in the fence are used, most of which allow the bars to slip from their places. A cross-wire welded or fastened without "give" will in time break with the constant vibration of the fence. A good fastening is shown in Fig. 358. Only fence from the factory can be made tight enough to keep the bar from slipping. The soft wire must be used if the weaving is done by hand, and this is not always satisfactory. Securing the ends. After the fence has been selected, its usefulness will depend to a great extent on the way it is erected. If the posts are not well placed the work is wasted. The most important thing is anchoring the end and corner posts, which maintain the tension of the fence. A day or so of additional work on a string of fence is a small matter when compared with the loss and inconvenience of a swagging fence. When farm help is scarce and one has neither tools nor Fig. 362. Mode of bracing a gate. experience in the work, the most satisfactory way is to have a fence-builder do the work by contract. Modes of securing the end posts are many. In Fig. 359 is shown a back brace for the end post Fig. 363. A common and satisfactory method of bracing the end post of a fence. that is neither very difficult to make nor very expensive. If the post and ground sill or "dead men" are both of locust or some equally good wood, and well placed, they will last a long time. This has the disadvantage of extending beyond the fence into the next field, and may there be a nuisance. A more common method is shown in Fig. 360. The brace post is set in line with the fence, and nine or ten feet from the end post. It should be about the same size as the end post, and set just as rigidly. A wooden brace extends horizontally from about twelve inches below the top of the end post to a notch about ten inches below the top of the brace post. The top of the brace post should then be tied to the bottom of the end post, a strong wire being generally used for this purpose. This is not so good as anchoring and bracing together. A more satisfactory brace is shown in Fig. 361. About 6 feet from the end post is set a line post of good size. It is connected to the end post by a horizontal brace of 6 x 6inch material, placed a few inches below the top of the posts. From near the top of the line post a cable of twisted wires, of at least six strands, Fig. 365 or a three-quarter-inch iron rod, passes down by the foot of the end post, to which it is not attached, to an anchor or "dead man" in the ground. If well placed, this brace will never give way or the posts lose their vertical position. If, on the other hand, the diagonal wire is fastened to the foot of the end post, a slight loss of vertical position is seen almost immediately, and the condition grows worse with time, the post sometimes being raised part way out of the ground. When a gateway comes in the line of a wire fence, a similar brace should be used, merely making it double and the diagonal wire cable endless, passing beneath a stone or wooden "dead man" (Fig. 362). This will insure the rigidity of the gate posts. Another mode of bracing and anchoring is shown in Fig. 363, in which the end post has a collar beneath the ground. Fig. 364. Cross-section at ground line of cement end post, showing the reinforced cement braces. A concrete gate or end post is by far the best. It should have a cross-section at the ground line, as shown in Fig. 364. It need not be more than 12 inches in diameter, but must be provided with a good-sized metal bar for reinforcement; a piece of 2-inch pipe will serve. Near the surface of the ground there should be dug narrow transverse trenches forming a +, the intersections at right angles, and in these trenches (which may be 6 feet long) concrete laid at the time it is placed in the post, with metal reinforcement laid in it also, crossing the section of the post. If, then, the excavation for the post be at least 48 inches deep, and the post made right in place, no power will be likely to move it in any direction. Posts. The selection of fence posts demands careful attention. The factor which determines their service is probably not so much the kind of wood used, within certain varieties, Mold for making cement fence posts with two tapering sides. as it is the climate and soil conditions in which they are placed. Posts will usually last longer either in excessively wet soil or excessively dry soil. Intermittent wetness and dryness is conducive to rotting and other deteriorating influences. While one kind of timber may be especially good and lasting in one part of the country, it may not be so durable in other parts. The following materials make good posts: osage orange, red cedar, white oak, bur oak, red oak, mulberry, white locust, yellow locust, catalpa, chestnut and cypress. Some of these may be discriminated against because of the difficulty of driving a nail or staple into them. Another factor which may reasonably determine the kind of materials to use for fence posts is the expense of securing them. An inferior post may be more serviceable because of immediate supply or lessened expense in procuring it. The life of wooden posts is very limited, and the scarcity of suitable timber in many localities has made it imperative to find a Fig. 367. Detail showing method of attaching wire to concrete post. substitute. Iron posts are frequently used for ornamental purposes, but their adoption for general farm use is prohibited by their excessive cost. Then, too, where exposed to the weather, iron posts are subject to corrosion; and if of cast iron they are easily broken by a sudden jar. Concrete posts. At the present time, the material which seems most nearly to meet the requirements of a fence post is reinforced concrete. The cost of concrete posts as compared with wooden posts will depend in any locality on the relative value of wood and the various materials which go to make up the concrete post; in most cases, at present, wood will prove the cheaper material in regard to first cost. On the other hand, a concrete post will last almost indefinitely, its strength increasing with age, whereas the wooden post must be replaced at short intervals, probably making it more expensive in the long run. It is not practicable to make concrete posts as strong as wooden posts of the same size; but sufficient strength to withstand the loads they are required to carry may be secured by means of reinforcement, or, in special cases, by using a larger post with a greater proportion of metal, and well braced. The following_advice on cement fence posts is from Farmers' Bulletin No. 235 of the United States Department of Agriculture: "No form of wooden reinforcement, either on the surface or within the post, can be recommended. If on the surface, the wood will soon decay, and if a wooden Fig. 368. Method of securing pickets. core is used it will in all probability swell by the absorption of moisture and crack the post. The use of galvanized wire is sometimes advocated, but if the post is properly constructed and a good con crete is used, this precaution against rust will be unnecessary, since it has been fully demonstrated by repeated tests that concrete protects steel perfectly against rust. If plain, smooth wire or rods are used for reinforcement, they should be bent over at the ends or looped to prevent slipping in the concrete. Twisted fence wire may usually be purchased at a reasonable cost and is very well suited for this purpose. Barbed wire has been proposed and is sometimes used, although the barbs Fig. 369. Serviceable gate made of wire stretched on 2x4-inch scantlings. Note the position of the brace wire. make it extremely difficult to handle. For the sake of economy, the smallest amount of metal consistent with the desired strength must be used, and this requirement makes it necessary to place the reinforcement near the surface, where its strength is utilized to greatest advantage, with only enough concrete on the outside to form a protective covering. A reinforcing member in each corner of the post is probably the most efficient arrangement. The concrete should be mixed with portland cement in about the proportion of 1-21–5, broken stone or gravel under one-half inch being used. In cases when the aggregate contains pieces smaller than one-fourth inch, less sand may be used, and in some cases it may be omitted altogether. A mixture of medium consistency is recommended on the ground that it fills the molds better, and with less tamping than if mixed quite dry. "Economy points to the use of a tapering post, which, fortunately, offers no difficulties in the way of molding. All things considered, wooden molds will be found most suitable. They can be made easily and quickly in any desired size and form. Posts may be molded either in a vertical or a horizontal position, the latter being the simpler and better method. If molded vertically a wet mixture is necessary, requiring a longer time to set, with the consequent delay in removing the molds. Fig. 365 shows a simple mold, which has been used with satisfactory results. This mold has a capacity of four posts, but larger molds could easily be made on the same principle. It consists of two end pieces (A), carrying lugs (B), between which are inserted strips (C). The several parts are held together with hooks and eyes, as shown in the figure. To prevent any bulging of the side strips they are braced, as illustrated. Dressed lumber at least 1 inch thick, and preferably 1 inches, should be used. The post made in this mold measures 6 by 6 inches at the bottom, 6 by 3 inches at the top, and 7 feet in length, having two parallel sides. If it is |