merly Those lately erected are at least sixteen feet wide within walls, and sometimes eighteen, and the width of each stall upon the length of the stable is commonly five feet. To save a little room, stalls of nine feet are sometimes made to hold two horses, and, in that case, the manger and the width of the stall are divided into equal parts by what is called a half trevice, or a partition about half the depth of that which separates one stall from another. By this contrivance, each horse indeed eats his food by himself; but the expense of single stalls is more than compensated by the greater ease, security, and comfort of the horses. The trevices or partitions which divide the stalls, are of deals two inches thick, and about five feet high; but, at the heads of the horses, the partition rises to the height of seven feet (fig. 352 a), and the length of the stall is usually from seven to eight feet. In many cases the end stall has a door 352 d b or frame of boards to fit in between it and the back wall (¿), in order to enclose food of any kind, a sick horse, a foal, or mare and foal, &c. 2668. The manger (c) is generally continued the whole length of the stable. It is about nine inches deep, twelve inches wide at the top, and nine at the bottom, all inside measure, and is placed about two feet four inches from the ground. Staples or rings are fixed on the breast of the manger, to which the horses are tied. 2669. The rack for holding their hay or straw, is also commonly continued the whole length of the stable. It is formed of upright spars (d), connected by cross rails at each end, and from two to two and a half feet in height. The rack is placed on the wall, about one foot and a half above the manger, the bottom almost close to the wall, and the top projecting outwards, but the best plan is to place it upright (c, d, a,). The spars are sometimes made round, and sunk into the cross-rails, and sometimes square. In a few stables lately built, the round spars turn on a pivot, which facilitates the horse's access to the hay, without requiring the interstices to be so wide, as to permit him to draw it out in too large quantities. 2670. Immediately above the racks is an opening in the hay-loft, through which the racks are filled. When it is thought necessary, this may be closed by boards moving on hinges, 2671. The racks in some of the best stables occupy one of the angles between the wall and trevices, and form the quadrant of a circle. The spars are perpendicular, and wider placed than in the hanging racks. The hay-seed falls into a box below, instead of being dropped on the ground, or incommoding the eyes and ears of the horses. 2672. Behind the horses, and about nine feet from the front wall is a gutter, having a gentle declivity to the straw yard or urine pit. Allowing about a foot for this, there will remain a width of eight feet to the back wall, if the stable be eighteen feet wide; a part of which, close to the wall, is occupied with corn-chests and places for harness. 2673. With a view to save both the hay and the seed, it is an advantage to have the hay-stacks so near the stable as to admit of the hay being thrown at once upon the loft. In some stables there is no loft, and the hay is stored in a separate apartment. 2674. The stable floor is, for the most part, paved with undressed stones; but in some instances, the space from the gutter to the back, is laid with flags of freestone. 2675. Horse-hammels, or small sheds, with yards to each, have been used as stables in a few instances, and with great success in Berwickshire. Each shed holds two horses, with a nitch for their harness: to each shed there is an open straw-yard, of small size, with a water trough, and a gate large enough to admit a cart to take out the dung. John Herriot, of Ladykirk, has long used these buildings for his horses with great success. He has lost none by death for a number of years, and they seldom have colds or any other disease. His horses lie in these open hammels in winter; and it is remarked, that in frosty weather, when snow is falling, and lying on the ground, the animals do not go under cover, but prefer to lie out, with their backs and sides covered with snow. It is well known, that if a horse is kept out in winter, he will have no grease, nor swelled legs, and perhaps few other diseases. These hammels seem to have all these advantages, at the same time that they protect the animal from damp, and prevent his back from being kept wet by heavy or long continued rains. Every farmer who keeps a large stock of horses, occasionally loses one by inflammation, brought on by coughs and colds; but the horses of the farmer alluded to, become aged, and he has not had occasion to purchase a young horse for several years. (Husb. of Scot. i. 26.) 2676. Cattle-sheds are used either for lodging milch cows, or for feeeding cattle for the butcher. The principal requisites in buildings of this description are, that they be capable of being well aired; that they are so constructed as to require the least possible labor in feeding the cattle, and clearing away the dung; that the stalls be so formed as to keep the cattle as dry and clean as possible, with sufficient drains to carry away, and reservoirs to collect the urine and dung. There are three ways in which the cattle are placed; first, in a row towards one of the side walls; second, in two rows, either fronting each other, with a passage between, or with their heads towards both side walls; and, third, across, or upon the width of the house, in successive rows, with intervening passages for feeding and removing the dung. In the first place, it is usual to have openings in the walls, through which they are supplied with turnips, otherwise they must necessarily be served from behind, with much inconvenience, both to the cattle-feeder and the cattle themselves. The plan that is most approved, and now becoming general when new buildings are erected, is to fix the stakes to which the cattle are tied about two and a half or three feet from the wall, which allows the cattle-man, without going among them, to fill their trough successively from his wheelbarrow or basket, with much ease and expedition. It is also a considerable improvement to keep the cattle separate, by partitions between every two. This will, in a great measure, prevent accidents, and secure the quiet animals from being injured by the vicious; for in these double stalls, each may be tied up to a stake placed near the partition, so as to be at some distance from his neighbor; and it is easy to lodge together such as are alike in size and in temper. The width of such stalls should not be less than 7 feet, and the depth must be regulated by the size of the cattle. 353 с 2677. Cattle hammels (fig. 353). The practice of feeding cattle in small sheds and straw-yards, or what is called hammels in Berwickshire, deserves to be noticed with approbation, when saving of expense is not a paramount object. Two cattle are usually kept together, and go loose, in which way they are thought by some to thrive better than when tied to a stake, and, at the same time, feed more at their ease than when a number are kept together, as in the common straw-yards. All that is necessary is, to run partitionwalls across the sheds and yards of the farmers; or if these are allotted to rearing stock, one side of the square, separated by a cart-way from the straw-yards, may be appropriated to these hammels. In the usual management of a row of cattle hammels in Berwickshire, there is one hammel (a, b) at one end used as a temporary repository for roots and straw for the cattle; then each hammel consists of the open yard (d, a), and the covered part (c): the entrance door, of which there is only one to each hammel, is in the wall of the yard (ƒ), and on each side of it are two troughs (e, e) for food, and a crib for hay, straw, cut clover, or other herbage in summer. 954 2678. Calf-pens or calf-stages, are common additions to cow-houses, where the feeding of calves for the butcher is an object of pursuit. The principal thing to be observed in the construction of calf-pens is, the laying of the floor, which should be made of laths or spars about two inches broad, laid at the distance of an inch from each other, upon joists, so as to make the floor about ten or twelve inches from the ground, as the situation will admit (fig. 354.) This not only keeps them quite dry, by allowing all the moisture to pass immediately away, but has the advantage of admitting fresh air below the bedding, and thereby preventing that unwholesome disagreeable smell, too often found among calves; for it is to be understood, that this place below the floor (a) should frequently be cleaned, as well as the floor itself, whenever it becomes wet or dirty; but it is not right to allow the litter to increase to a great thickness, otherwise the moisture will not so easily pass through. Calf-pens are, however, too often made without this sparred floor, and the fresh litter always laid on the old, till the calves are removed, which is a slovenly practice, and not by any means to be recommended. Stalls, or divisions, are too often neglected in calf-pens. Partitions, about three feet high, of thin deal nailed on small posts, might be so contrived as to be moveable at pleasure, to increase or diminish the stall, if necessary, according to the age and size of the calf. If it be thought unnecessary to make the partitions moveable, there might be a small round trough, in a circular frame, fixed in the corner of each pen, for holding the milk, and a door in the next adjoining corner. A small slight rack for holding a little hay, placed at the upper part of the pen, might also be useful. The troughs should be round, that the calves may not hurt themselves upon them, which they might probably do on the angles if they were square. The advantages of this kind of calf-pens are, that the calves are all kept separate in a small compass, and cannot hurt each other, as the stronger ones sometimes do the weaker, when confined promiscuously, and their food may be much more easily and equally distributed. 2679. The calf-pens in Gloucestershire, Marshal observes, are of an admirable construction; extremely simple, yet singularly well adapted to the object. Young calves, fattening calves more especially, require to be kept narrowly confined quietness is, in a degree, essential to their thriving. A loose pen, or a long halter, gives freedom to their natural fears, and a loose to their playfulness. Cleanliness, and a due degree of warmth, are likewise requisite in the right management of calves. A pen which holds seven, or occasionally eight calves, is of the following description:- The house or roomstead, in which it is placed, measures twelve feet by eight: four feet of its width are occupied by the stage, and one foot by a trough placed on its front; leaving three feet as a gangway, into the middle of which the door opens. The floor of the stage is formed of laths, about two inches square, lying lengthways of the stage, and one inch asunder. The front fence is of staves, an inch and a half diameter, 9 inches from middle to middle, and 3 feet high: entered at the bottom into the front bearer of the floor (from which cross-joists pass into the back wall), and steadied at the top by a rail; which, as well as the bottom piece, is entered at each end into the end wall. The holes in the upper rail are wide enough to permit the staves to be lifted up and taken out, to give admission to the calves; one of which is fastened to every second stave, by means of two rings of iron joined by a swivel; one ring playing upon the stave, the other receiving a broad leathern collar, buckled 'round the neck of the call. The trough is for barley-meal, chalk, &c. and to rest the pails on. Two calves drink out of one pail, putting their heads through between the staves. The height of the floor of the stage from the floor of the room, is about one foot. It is thought to be wrong to hang it higher, lest, by the wind drawing under it, the calves should be too cold in severe weather: this, however, might be easily prevented by litter, or long strawy dung thrust beneath it. It is observable, that these stages are fit only for calves which are fed with the pail, not for calves which suck the cow. 2680. Hog-styes for the breeding or fattening of swine, are mostly built in a simple manner, requiring only warm dry places for the swine to lie in, with small areas before, and troughs to hold their food. They are generally constructed with shed-roofs, and seldom above six or seven feet wide, with height in proportion. In order that they may be convenient, they should be at no great distance from the house; and the less they are connected with the other farm-buildings the better. In some cases, it might be of utility to have them connected with the scullery, in such a way as that all sorts of refuse articles might be readily conveyed to them by pipes or other contrivances. When at a distance, they should be so placed as that the servants need not enter the farm-yard in feeding them. It is a circumstance of vast advantage in the economy of labor, as well as food, to have them conveniently situated and built. Though swine are generally, perhaps from a too partial view of their habits, considered as filthy animals, there are no animals which delight more in a clean and comfortable place to lie down in, and none that cleanliness has a better effect upon with respect to their thriving and feeding. In order to keep them dry, a sufficient slope must be given, not only to the inside places where they are to lie, but to the outside areas, with proper drains to carry off all moisture. The outsides should also be a little elevated, and have steps up from the areas of at least five or six inches in height. Hog-styes should likewise have several divisions, to keep the different sorts of swine separate; nor should a great many ever be allowed to go together; for it is found that they feed better in small numbers, and of equal size, than when many of equal sizes are put together. Proper divisions must, therefore, be made; some for swine when with the boar; others for brood swine, and for them to farrow in; for weaning the pigs, for keeping the store pigs, for fattening, &c. When convenient, the areas should be pretty large. And where it can be had, it is of great use to have water conveyed to them, as it serves many useful purposes. 2681. Every sty should have a rubbing-post. "Having occasion," says Marshal, "to shift two hogs out of a sty without one, into another with a post, accidentally put up to support the roof, he had a full opportunity of observing its use. The animals, when they went in, were dirty, with broken ragged coats, and with dull heavy countenances. In a few days, they cleared away their coats, cleaned their skins, and became sleeky haired; the enjoyments of the post were discernible even in their looks, in their liveliness, and apparent contentment. It is not probable, that any animal should thrive while afflicted with pain or uneasiness. Graziers suffer single trees to grow, or put up dead posts in the ground, for their cattle to rub themselves against; yet it is probable that a rubbing-post has never been placed intentionally in a sty; though, perhaps, for a two-fold reason, rubbing is most requisite to swine. In farm-yards the piggeries and poultry houses generally occupy the south side of the area, in low buildings, which may be overlooked from the farmer's dwelling-house. They should open behind into the straw-yards or dungheap, to allow the hogs and fowls to pick up the corn left on the straw, or what turnips, clover, or other matters are refused by the cattle. They should have openings outwards, that the pigs may be let out to range round the farmery at convenient times; and that the poultry may have ingress and egress from that side as well as the other. 2682. Poultry houses are generally slight structures for rearing and feeding domestic fowls. Beatson (Com. to the Board of Ag. vol. i.) is of opinion, that poultry ought always to be confined, but not in a close, dark, diininutive hovel, as is often the case; they should have a spacious airy place, properly constructed for them. Some people are of opinion, that each sort of poultry should be kept by itself. This, however, is not, he says, absolutely necessary, for all sorts may be kept promiscuously together, provided they have a place sufficiently large to accommodate them conveniently, and proper divisions and nests for each kind to retire to separately, which they will naturally do of themselves. Wakefield of Liverpool keeps a large stock of turkeys, geese, hens, and ducks, all in the same place: and although young turkeys are in general considered so difficult to bring up, he rears great numbers of them in this manner every season, with little or no trouble whatever. For this purpose he has about three quarters, or near a whole acre, inclosed with a fence only six or seven feet high, formed of slabs set on end, or any thinnings of fir or other trees split and put close together. They are fastened by a rail near the top and another near the bottom, and are pointed sharp, which he supposes prevents the poultry flying over, for they never attempt it, although so low. Within this fence are places done up slightly (but well secured from wet) for each sort of poultry; also a pond or stream of water running through it. These poultry are fed almost entirely with potatoes boiled in steam, and thrive astonishingly well. The quantity of dung that is made in this poultry place is also an object worth attention: and when it is cleaned out, a thin paring of the surface is at the same time taken off, which makes a valuable compost, for the purpose of manure. But for keeping poultry upon a small scale, it is only necessary to have a small shed or slight building, formed in some warm sheltered sunny situation, if near the kitchen or other place where a constant fire is kept so much the better, with proper divisions, boxes, baskets, or other contrivances for the different sorts of birds, and for their laying and incubation.. 2683. When a few poultry that take their chance at the barn-door, are kept by the farmer for the convenience of eggs, and not to go to market when a fowl is wanted, no particular attention is requisite; but as, in some situations, they may pay well for more food and closer attention, other circumstances may be noticed. "The poultry-house should," Young says, "contain an apartment for the general stock to roost in, another for setting, a third for fattening, and a fourth for food. If the scale is large, there should be a fifth, for plucking and keeping feathers. If a woman is kept purposely to attend them, she should have her cottage contiguous, that the smoke of her chimney may play into the roosting and setting rooms; poultry never thriving so well as in warmth and smoke; an observation as old as Columella, and strongly confirmed by the quantity bred in the smoky cabins of Ireland. For setting both turkeys and hens, nests should be made in lockers, that have lids with hinges, to confine them, if necessary, or two or three will, he says, in sitting, crowd into the same nest. All must have access to a gravelled yard, and to grass for range, and the building should be near the farm yard, and have clear water near. Great attention should be paid to cleanliness and whitewashing, not for appearance, but to destroy vermin." 2684. The interior arrangement of a poultry house for a farm-yard, is generally very simple, and consists of little more than a number of spars reaching across the building at different heights, or the same height 355 with a gangway or ladder attached, for the fowls to ascend: but where comfort and cleanliness is studied, a preferable mode is to form a sloping stage of spars (fig. 355 a, b), for the poultry to sit on; beneath this stage may be two ranges of boxes for nests (c, c); the roof (d) should have a ceiling to keep the whole warm in winter, and the door (e) should be nearly as high as: the ceiling for ventilation, and should have a small opening with a shutter at bottom, which, where there is no danger from dogs or foxes, may be left open at all times to admit of the poultry going in and out at pleasure, and especially for their early egress during summer. The spars on which the clawed birds are to roost, should not be round and smooth, but roundish and roughish, like the branch of a tree. The floor must be dry, and kept clean for the web-footed kinds. 2685. The rabbitry is a building of rare occurrence in agriculture, and where it is required differs little from the piggery, consisting of a yard for exercise and receiving food, and a covered close apartment connected, for repose, sleep, and the mothers and young. In the latter are generally boxes a foot or more high and wide, and divided into compartments of two or more cubic feet for the rabbits to retire into, and bring forth their young. Where young rabbits are fed for the market, the mother and offspring are generally confined to hutches, which are boxes a little larger than the common breeding boxes, and kept in a separate apartment. In treating of the rabbit (Part III.) these and other contrivances for the culture of this animal, will be brought into notice. 356. 2686. The pigeonry is a structure not more frequent than the rabbitry, being scarcely admissible in professional agriculture, excepting in grazing districts, where the birds have not so direct an opportunity of injuring corn. Sometimes they are made an ornamental appendage to a proprietor's farmery, or to a sheep-house in a park (fig. 356.), or other detached building; and sometimes a wooden structure, raised from the ground on one or more posts, is formed on purpose for their abode. Whatever may be the external form, the interior arrangement consists of a series of boxes or cavities, formed in or against the wall generally about a foot high and deep, and two feet or less long; one half of the front is left open as an entrance, and the other is closed to protect the female during incubation. (See Pigeon, Part III.) 2687. The apiary is a building or structure seldom wanted, excepting to protect hives from thieves; then a nitch or recess in a wall to be secured in front by two or more iron bars, is a simple and effectual mode. Sometimes apiaries are made ornamental (fig. 357.), but the best bee masters set little value on such structures, and prefer keeping their bees detached in single hives for sufficient reasons. These hives may be chained to fixed stools in Huish's manner. (See Bee, Part IV.) 357 SECT. II. Buildings as Repositories, and for performing in-door Operations. 2688. Buildings for dead stock and crop occupy a considerable portion of the farmery, and include the barn, granary, straw and root-houses, cart-sheds, tool-house, harness. room, and when farming is conducted on a very extensive scale, the smiths' and carpenters' work-rooms. 2689. The corn barn, or building for containing, threshing, and cleaning corn, has undergone considerable change in form and dimensions in modern times. Formerly it was in many cases made so large as to contain at once all the corn grown on a farm; and in most cases it was so ample as to contain a great portion of it. But since the mode of forming small corn stacks became more general, and also the introduction of threshing machines, this description of building is made much smaller. The barn, especially where the corn is to be threshed by a machine, is best placed on the north side of the farmery, as being most centrical for the supply of the straw yards, as well as the stables and cattle sheds. In this situation it has also the best effect in an architectural and picturesque point of view (fig. 358.) Suppose an octagon form chosen for a farmery with the barn (1), straw-room and granary over (2),and mill-shed (3), to the north; then on the left of the barn may be the stable for work-horses (4), and riding-horse stable (5), cattle-house (6), cow-house (7), sick horse (8), sick cow (9), cattle-sheds (10), cartshed (11), boiling and steaming house (12), roothouse (13), chaff and other stores for steaming, or mechanic's work-shop (14), piggeries (15), poultry and rabbiting(16). The yard may be divided in two by a wall running north and south, with a pump, well, or other supply of water in the centre (17). The rick-yard (27), should be to the north of such a farmery for easy conveyance to the barn: the main entrance (28) should be from the south opposite the dwelling-house; side entrances (26) should lead to different parts of the farm and to the main roads of the country, and there should be ponds (25) for washing the horses' feet and for the poultry. We have elsewhere shown the same accommodations arranged in a square and circular outline (780.). 10 390 W 15 9 2690. The English corn barn for containing a large quantity of corn in the straw, and for threshing it out by flails, may either be constructed on wooden frames covered with planks of oak, or be built of brick or stone, whichever the country affords in the greatest plenty; and in either case there should be such ventholes, or openings in their sides or walls, as to afford free admittance to the air, in order to prevent the mouldiness that would otherwise, from the least dampness, lodge in the grain. The gable-ends are probably best of brick or stone, on account of greater solidity; the whole may be roofed with either thatch or tiles, as can be most conveniently procured. It should have two large folding-doors facing each other, one in each side of the building, for the convenience of carrying in or out a large load of corn in sheaves; and these doors should be of the same breadth with the threshing-floor, to afford the more light and air; the |