2767. Fences, next to implements, machinery, and suitable buildings, are in most situations" indispensable to the profitable management of arable land. They are not only necessary to protect the crops from the live stock of the farm, but often contribute, in no small degree, by the shelter they afford, to augment and improve the produce itself. On all arable farms, on which cattle and sheep are pastured, the ease, security, and comfort, which good fences give, both to the owner and the animals themselves, are

too evident to require particular notice. And as there are few tracts so rich as to admit of crops being carried off the land for a succession of years, without the intervention of green crops consumed where they grow, fences, of some description or other, can very rarely be dispensed with, even in the most fertile and highly improved districts." The same able author complains of the general mismanagement of this branch of husbandry, by which means fences not only often become comparatively useless, but even injurious by the space they occupy, and the weeds they shelter. This, he says, "is particularly the case with thorn hedges, which are too often planted in soils where they can never, by any management, be expected to become a sufficient fence; and which, even when planted on suitable soils, are in many cases so much neglected when young, as ever afterwards to be a nuisance, instead of being an ornamental, permanent, and impenetrable barrier, as with proper training, they might have formed in a few years. (Sup. Encyc. Brit. art. 4g.) Fences may be considered in regard to their emplacement or siuation, and their form or kind.

SECT. I. Of the Situation or Emplacement of Fences.

2768. The emplacement or disposition of fences on a farm or an estate, will depend on the purposes for which they are made. In laying out an estate, their disposition will depend on the natural surface and situation of roads; water-courses; on the lands to be planted with trees, and on a variety of other considerations which will come under review in the succeding part of this work. The situation of fences on a farm depends on a great variety of circumstances, as the extent of the farm; its climate, whether pasture, or arable, or mixed; on the inequalities of the surface; on the nature of the soil; on the supply of water, and on the course of husbandry to be followed.

2769. In determining the subdivisions of an arable farm, the excellent author above quoted observes, "whatever may be the kind of fence which it is thought advisable to adopt, we would recommend that particular attention be paid to the course of crops which the quality of the soil points out as the most advantageous; and that upon all farms, not below a medium size, there should be twice the number of enclosures that there are divisions or breaks in the course. Thus, if a six years' rotation be thought the most profitable, there should be twelve enclosures, two of which are always under the same crop. One very obvious advantage in this arrangement is, that it tends greatly to equalize labor, and, with a little attention, may contribute much to equalize the produce also. On large farms, where all the land under turnips and clover, for instance, is near the extremity of the grounds, or at a considerable distance from the buildings, supposed to be set down near the centre, it is clear, that the labor of supplying the house and straw-yard stock with these crops, as well as the carriage of the manure to the field, is much greater than if the fields were so arranged, as that the half of each of these crops had been nearer the offices. But by means of two fields for each crop in the rotation, it is quite easy to connect together one field near the houses, with another at a distance, and thus to have a supply at hand for the home stock, while the distant crops may be consumed on the ground. The same equalization of labor must be perceived in the cultivation of the corn-fields, and in harvesting the crops. The time lost in travelling to some of the fields, when working by the plough, is of itself a matter of some consequence on large farms. But the advantages of this arrangement are not confined to the equalization and economy of labor; it may also, in a great measure, render the annual produce uniform and equable, notwithstanding a considerable diversity in the quality of the soil. A field of an inferior soil may be connected with one that is naturally rich, and in the consumption of the green crops, as well as in the allowance of manure, the poor land may be gradually brought nearer, in the quantity and quality of its produce, to the rich, without any injury to the latter. Thus a field under turnips may be so fertile, that it would be destructive to the succeeding corn crops to consume the whole or the greater part on the ground; while another may be naturally so poor, or so deficient in tenacity, as to make it inexpedient to spare any part for consumption elsewhere. By connecting these two under the same crop,-by carrying from the one what turnips are wanted for the feeding-houses and straw-yards, and eating the whole crop of the other on the ground with sheep, the ensuing crop of corn will not be so luxuriant on the former as to be unproductive, while the latter will seldom fail to yield abundantly. The same plan will also be advantageous in the case of other crops. Hay or green clover may be taken from the richer field, and the poorer one depastured; and on the one wheat may succeed both turnips and clover, while the more gentle crops of barley and oats are appropriated to the less fertile field. These observations are particularly applicable to turnip soils, of such a quality as not to require more than one year's pasturage, and which are therefore cultivated with corn and green crops alternately; but the same principle may be extended to clay lands, and such as require to be depastured two or more years in succession.

2770. Where hedges are employed as fences, it is of importance that the ditches be drawn in such a direction as to serve the purposes of drains, and also that they may receive the water from the covered drains that may be required in the fields contiguous. According as the line of the fence is more or less convenient in this respect, the expense of draining may be considerably diminished or increased.

SECT. II. Of the different Kinds of Fences.

2771. Fences in regard to kind, may be arranged as live fences, dead fences, and mixed kinds; but there are four elementary species which are the foundation of all the others; the hedge, the ditch, the wall, and the paling. The hedge, when formed of the white or black thorn, of the plum, or crab, or of the holly, is the cheapest, most durable, and the handsomest of all fences on a good deep soil: the ditch is the best on low flat wet lands requiring much drainage; the wall is the best for farming purposes in almost all cases whatever; and the paling, whether fixed or temporary (as of hurdles), is the most convenient as a nurse-fence to hedges for immediate or temporary use, and for fencing in parks and scenery, where an air of lightness and freedom are objects of approbation. From these simple or fundamental fences, a variety of compound ones may be formed, a few of which we shall proceed to enumerate.

SUBSECT. 1. Ditch or Drain Fences.

2772. Ditch fences, in their simple and original state, were considered rather in the light of open drains than as fences. In a variety of instances, ditches are made for this purpose only, where there is no intention whatever to enclose the field. They are, however, sometimes meant as a fence, but, in such cases, they are made very deep and wide; and the earth taken out of them is sometimes formed into a bank, the height of which, when added to the depth of the ditch, forms a tolerable barrier. In general, however, the greatest value of the ditch is met with when it is used in conjunction with other fences.

2773. The form of ditches is various; some of them being of a uniform width both at top and bottom; others are wide above, and have a gradual slope downwards; a third kind have one side sloping and the other perpendicular. For whatever purpose the ditch is meant, the sloping form is by much the best; as it not only costs less money in the digging, but is at the same time much more durable, and has a neater appearance. Where open ditches are indispensably necessary for the drainage of the field, the sloping ditch is preferable to every other; as the sides are not liable to tumble in or be undermined, or excavated by the current of the water, when properly executed. The slope should be considerable'; perhaps not less than three times the width at top that it is at bottom.

2774. The open ditch, with a wall or perpendicular sides, is liable to much objection, both in its simple and compound state: in its simple state the sides are perpetually tumbling in, especially after frosts or heavy rains, and if the field round which these ditches are made has any considerable declivity, the bottom is undermined, and large masses tumble down, bringing the hedge along with them.

2775. The simple ditch, with a bank of earth, consists merely of a ditch sloping gradually towards the bottom; the earth taken out of it being formed into a bank on one side, leaving a scarcement, or projecting space, of six or eight inches, on the side where the bank is formed, to prevent the earth from tumbling in and filling up the ditch.

For

379

2776. The double ditch, with a bank between, (fig. 379.) is not often used, unless in cases where it is meant either to plant hedges or trees on the bank between the ditches. Considered as a fence, either with or without a hedge, it has an advantage over the single ditch, as the earth taken out of the two ditches, when properly laid up, will form a bank of a somewhat formidable appearance, and which cattle will not very readily attempt to break over. the purposes of open drainage, it is well adapted, especially by the sides of highways, where the lands have a considerable declivity towards the road; the ditch next the field, by receiving the water on that side, prevents it from overflowing and washing the road, a circumstance which very frequently happens in such situations; while the ditch on the side next the road, by receiving and carrying off the moisture that falls upon, and which would otherwise lodge there and destroy it, keeps it constantly dry and in good repair. Where double ditches are made in the immediate vicinity of high grounds, or on the sides of highways, care should be taken to prevent the water from the furrows, or side-drains, from running into the main ditch at right angles. Where this is neglected, much trouble and inconvenience arises; as when the water comes from the height, during heavy rains in a straight line into the ditch, it presses with accelerated force against the sides of it; and if the soil is of a loose incoherent nature, the bank will be undermined and washed away in many places. To prevent this, nothing more is requisite than to alter the direction of the furrows, or small side-ditches, a few yards from their opening into the main ditch. 2777. The bank of earth, with an upright facing of turves, and a slope behind, is a very common sort of fence, and in some situations extremely useful; in making folds, for instance, for the confinement of sheep or cattle. It is also valuable on the sides of highways, for defending the adjoining grounds, and for laying off clumps or belts of planting in the middle or corners of arable fields, for enclosing stack-yards, cottages, gardens, &c. The front of the bank is made of a very steep slope, with the turf pared off from the surface of the sloping ditch, and the mound at the back with the earth taken out of it.

2778. The ha-ha, or sunk fence, is calculated chiefly for fields that require no shelter, and where an uniform unbroken prospect is an object, as is the case in gardens and extensive lawns: but in all situations where shelter is wanted, the sunkfence ought to be avoided, unless a hedge is planted upon the top of it. Sometimes a medium between the sunk and raised fence (fig. 380.) is adopted, which makes both a durable and unobtrusive barrier,

380

2779. The double ditch and hedge is now general in many parts of Britain, especially upon what are termed cold lands; from an idea, that a single row of plants would not

grow sufficiently strong or thick to form a proper fence. The advocates for this fence farther allege, that in addition to the two rows of plants forming a more sufficient fence, an opportunity is afforded of planting a row or rows of trees on the middle of the bank.

381

(fig. 381.). This fence is liable to many objections: the expense of forming the ditches, the hedge-plants made use of, and the ground occupied thereby, being double of what is requisite in a single ditch and hedge. From twelve to eighteen or twenty feet is the least that is required for a double ditch and hedge: this space, in the circumference of a large field, is so considerable, that upon a farm of 500 acres, divided into fifteen enclosures, the fences alone would occupy above forty acres. By throwing up a bank in the middle, the whole of the nourishment, not only of both hedges, but also of the row of trees, is confined solely to that space, which, from its being insulated by the ditches, and elevated so much above the common surface, not only curtails the nourishment of the hedges and row of trees, but exposes them to all the injuries arising from drought, frost, &c. The idea of two rows of plants making a better fence than one is certainly no good reason for such an unnecessary waste of land and money; as, in almost every instance, where the plants are properly adapted to the soil and climate, one row will be found quite sufficient; but, if it should be preferred to have two rows, the purpose will be answered equally well with a single ditch, or even without a ditch at all.

SUBSECT. 2. Of Hedge-Fences.

382

2780. Hedge-fences are of two kinds; either such as are made up of dead materials, or such as are formed of living plants of some sort or other. 2781. Dead hedges (fig. 382.) are made with the prunings of trees, or the tops of old thorn or other hedges that have been cut down; and are principally intended for temporary purposes, such as the protection of young hedges till they have acquired a sufficient degree of strength to render them fencible without any other assistance. For this purpose the dead hedge is well adapted, and lasts so long as to enable the live fence to grow up and complete the enclosure. In many cases, however, dead hedges are had recourse to as the sole fence, and where there is no intention of planting quicks, or any other hedge. From their very perishable nature, however, they are found to be exceedingly expensive; so much so, indeed, that, after the first or second year, they cannot be kept in repair at a less expense than from a fifth to a tenth part of the value of the land, and sometimes more. When dead hedges are meant for the protection of young live fences, if the quick fence is planted upon the common surface, the dead hedge is made in a trench or furrow immediately behind it, in such a way as to prevent the sheep or cattle grazing in the enclosed field from injuring it. Where the quick fence, however, is planted upon the side of a ditch, the dead hedge is for the most part made on the top of the mound formed by the earth taken out of the ditch: these are called plain dcad hedges, being made by cutting the thorns or brush-wood, of which they consist, into certain lengths, and putting them into the earth. We call them plain, in opposition to other descriptions of dead hedges where more art is used: such as the dead hedge with upright stakes wattled, and the common plaited hedge bound together at the top with willows.

2782. In respect to live hedges they are made either entirely with one kind of plants, or a mixture of different kinds; and for that purpose almost every tree or shrub known in Britain is either wholly or in part employed. The success of every attempt made to rear good fences will be found ultimately to depend on the plants being suited to the soil and climate, the preparation of the soil, the time and mode of planting, the age of the plants, their size, the dressing or pruning of the tops and roots before planting, weeding, hoeing, pruning, and after-management.

2783. The proper choice of hedge plants is of the first importance. Many failures in this part of the business might be enumerated; especially in the more elevated situations, where great labor and expense have been employed to raise hedges of hawthorn, which, after many years' care and attention, were found totally unfit for such inclement regions. In such situations, experience has now sufficiently proved, that good fences can be reared in aʼshort time with beech, birch, larch, and the Huntingdon willow: hedges of these kinds ought, therefore, to be the only ones used in hilly countries, or upon cold wet soils; the three first upon the dry soils, and the last, with the addition of poplars, upon such as are wet or marshy. In the low country, however, and in the less elevated parts of the uplands, the white thorn will be found the best upon all the dry, or moderately dry, parts of the soil; especially the different kinds of loamy, sandy, or gravelly lands: upon clays, or cold wet soils, however, beech, crab, birch, poplar, willow, and alder, may be used with advantage. The birch, poplar, alder, and Huntingdon willow, are peculiarly calculated for the coldest, wettest, and most marshy parts; while beech, crab, &c. will be found to answer best upon the stiff clays. Hazel, sweet-briar, mountain-ash, and indeed all the different kinds of forest-trees that are at present known to Ff

delight in dry soils, may also be successfully employed for making hedges in the low lands; but whichever of these is used, they should, if possible, be without mixture. It is seldom that any soil, however good, will be found equally favorable to the growth of plants opposite in their natures; this circumstance alone will render their growth unequal, and of course make the fence faulty and defective. These defects in the fence, and inequalities in the growth of the plants, will increase with time, become every day more apparent, and be every day more sensibly felt; as the plants which have thus acquired the ascendancy will continue to keep it, and not only shade the weaker ones, and prevent them from enjoying the influence of the sun and air, but also deprive them of nourishment. Independent of these considerations, there is another, it is observed, of equal, perhaps greater, moment, that requires to be mentioned; allowing the soil to be equally favorable to the growth of the whole plants of which the mixture consists, there are certain plants which are highly inimical to the growth of others, when planted in their immediate vicinity; ivy and honeysuckle, for instance, when mixed with thorns, or other plants in a hedge, never fail to destroy such of the hedge-plants as they fasten upon; indeed moss, which is known to be one of the worst enemies to all hedges, is not more dangerous or more certainly ruinous; even the different kinds of sweet-briar, virgin's bower, brambles, briony, cleavers, &c. have the same effect; and in the end never fail to produce a gap in that part of the edge where they grow, by smothering the other plants.

2784. The preparation of the soil for hedges, is one of those points intimately connected with, and, indeed, essential to, their success. Except in a very few instances, however poor the soil may be, or however strong the cohesion of its parts, no attempt is made either to break that cohesion by tillage, or improve its quality by enriching or alterative manures: the young plants being for the most part laid upon the old surface, which has perhaps never been opened by the labor of man, and their roots covered with the earth taken out of the ditch, consisting very often of the poorest and coldest till, or of earths loaded with iron or other metallic impregnations. To those who have considered the matter with the smallest attention, the fate of such a hedge will not appear doubtful; the surface upon which the plants are laid will be so hard and impervious to the roots, as to preclude the possibility of their penetrating it; of course, their only chance of either extending themselves, or procuring nourishment, is by spreading out between the surface and the mound made by the earth taken out of the ditch, or by striking up into the mound, where, though the soil will be sufficiently open to admit of this, the roots, in place of finding an establishment in a situation friendly to their growth, will very often be either starved or poisoned.

2785. With respect to the age at which hedge-plants ought to be used, it is very common, especially where young hedges are made with thorns, to plant them of one, two, or three years old, seldom exceeding this last age. Plants of this description, when put into the earth at a proper season of the year, upon land that is well prepared, and that are afterwards carefully kept clean, and the earth soft and loose, by regular weeding and digging, seldom fail to make good fences; such young plants, however, are, it is observed, long in a state of infancy, and require great nursing and the most complete protection to bring them to perfection, and are liable to be either much hurt or totally destroyed by many accidents that would produce little or no effect upon older and stronger plants. Much time might be saved in the rearing of hedges, and the fences be much more perfect and useful, if older plants were employed for that purpose. Three years old is certainly the youngest that should be planted, and if they are even six or seven years old, so much the better the prevailing idea that plants of that age will not thrive if transplanted, is totally unfounded. Thorns of six or seven years old, in place of being no thicker than a common straw, will be at a medium more than an inch in circumference: we leave those who are judges to determine how far a plant of this last description will be superior to one of two years old, and how much sooner it will answer the purposes of a fence.

2786. In respect to the size of thorns or other hedge-plants, it may be necessary to observe, that, when the plants are once obtained, they should be separated into sorts, according to their size and apparent strength, picking out the largest first, and so on downwards. This will be attended with several very material advantages, which those who have made observations on the subject will very readily understand; plants of the same size and strength, when planted together, keep pace with each other; no one of them takes from the earth more than its own share of nourishment, of course the growth of the whole is regular and uniform; and the hedge, when arrived at a certain age, becomes a substantial efficient fence, of an equal height throughout, and free of any gaps: whereas, when no pains have been taken in assorting the plants, and they are planted promiscuously, great and small, strong and weak, the consequence is, that the strongest plants very soon outgrow such as are weaker, and not only overtop them, but also deprive them of that nourishment which they so much require: as the hedge advances in age, the evil becomes greater, small stunted plants and innumerable gaps appearing throughout the whole line of the fence; interspersed with others remarkable for their strength and luxuriance.

2787. This assorting of hedge-plants has a farther advantage; namely, that of putting it in the power of the person who plants the hedge to put down the large, strong, healthy plants upon the poorest part of the line of the fence, and to set such as are smaller and weaker upon the richer and more fertile parts. He has it also in his power, by a more careful preparation of the soil, and bestowing a greater proportion of manure upon the spaces where the small plants are set, to give them that nourishment and assistance