zontal lines, and lines converging to them from the centre of vision, some idea may be had, on flat surfaces at least, of the relative heights and distances of objects.

3116. A simple mode is to give a general view, or distant prospect of the estate, or its principal parts (fig. 429.), as seen from some elevated conspicuous hill, building, or object near it; or if the estate, as is frequently the case, is situated on the side of a hill, or range of hills, a situation on the plain, or flat grounds opposite to it, will be sufficient.

3117. In delineating maps the most durable mode in point of durability is on parchment; but where there is a chance of alterations being made on the estate, as in the lines of roads, fences, streams, &c., it is better to delineate on paper, as the corresponding alterations can be made on the map with greater ease. Such colors as are stains, and do not wash out, are proper for maps and plans on parchment; but where alterations may require to be made, or where shadows or any thing like picturesque effect is to be attempted, water colors alone must be used. To delineate estates and plans of every kind in a beautiful and expressive manner, much depends on having the very best instruments and colors, and in knowing how to use them. The sight of good models is also an important matter, and for this we may refer to Horner's elegant work, The Art of delineating Estates, 1813; and the very scientific work of Lehman, already mentioned (p. 487.).

3118. In the writing or printing on maps, great want of taste is often displayed. No principle can be more obvious than that the name of a thing, or the ornaments of an object, should not be made more conspicuous than the theory or object itself. Yet this rule is constantly violated in plans of estates by the large ornamental writing or print interspersed in and around them; conspicuous blazonry of the name of the estate and its owner at some corner, and of the compass and scale in others. All these adjuncts should be kept in due subordination to the main delineation.

3119. Models of every mountainous estates will be found preferable to any description of maps, or views, for giving a correct idea of them. Such models might be formed in plaster of Paris, wax, or various other materials, and colored after nature.

3120. Reference books are essential accompaniments to maps or models, and are of various kinds. Sometimes they merely contain the names and contents of the fields or other parts or divisions, with the state of culture or condition in which they are. In other cases the soil and subsoil are described, but in the most complete cases each farm is described, together with the history of its occupation or improvement under the following or similar heads: - Name, parish, extent, boundaries, when first enclosed, how let and managed hitherto, to whom and for how much let at present, description of the farmery and house, contents, fences, trees, ponds, soil, subsoil, surface, expense, &c. of each field; number of timber trees on the farm, copse woods, and various matters. In addition to such a description as the above, some add in the reference book a separate map of each farm, which renders the whole very comprehensive; and as nothing can be more interesting than the contemplation of a man's own property on all sides, and in every possible bearing, these books are generally valued above all others by country gentlemen.

3121. The valuations of farming stock, tillage, and leases, being of temporary use, are made out with little form. In most cases the value of particular articles is not given, but only an enumeration of them, and the sum total. The valuators have the separate values in their private memorandum books; and in cases where two valuators are employed, one on each side, if an umpire is obliged to be called in, in consequence of disagreement, then the parties have reference to their notes. In some cases of valuations by two partics, the umpire being appointed beforehand, accompanies the valuators, hears their

discussion on each article as it comes under review, and decides any difference that may occur as they go on. This is considered the best mode, and is that generally adopted in the case of valuations made by order of the Court of Chancery.

3122. In making up valuations for purchasing or selling estates, a report is generally required to accompany the valuation, stating the ground on which it is made. Such a report embraces a great variety of objects according to the nature and extent of the property, and ought to be drawn up in a clear and systematic manner, with such a table of contents and an index as may render it of easy reference.

SECT. 11. Operations of Order and Management.

3123. The business of agriculture, whether in the management of extensive estates or the culture of single farms, requires to be conducted in an orderly and systematic manner. For this purpose a certain establishment of operators, a certain style of books of accounts, and great attention in all commercial transactions, may be considered the fundamental requisites.

3124. The establishment of co-operators and servants, must depend on the extent of the subject of management. An extensive landed estate, containing besides farming lands, woods, quarries, mills, mines, waters, manorial rights, game, and villages, will require a series of subordinate managers; but in general a steward as a head manager, a steward's clerk or assistant, or in some cases a local steward, are all the managers that are requisite; the subordinate care of quarries, woods, game, &c. being performed by a quarryman, forester, gamekeeper, or by common servants of tried fidelity.

3125. The gradation of operators required on farms, depends on their size. Whenever the master does not labor himself, a foreman or operator having some charge is requisite, and in very extensive cases where there is a considerable extent of grazing ground as well as tillage lands, a head ploughman and a head herdsman will be found advantageous. There should also be a confidential laborer, or headman of all work, to superintend and accompany women and children in their operations, as in hoeing, weeding, planting potatoes, &c. The grand point to be aimed at by the steward of an extensive estate, and the occupier of a large farm, is to hit on the proper number of submanagers; and to assign each his distinct province, so as the one may never interfere with the other. Having attained this, the next thing is to keep the whole machine in regular action, to keep every man, from the lowest operator to the highest, strictly to his duty. All operators ought to be adequately remunerated, and it is better in general to pay a liberal price and require vigilant, skilful, and active exertion, than to cheapen labor, and so encourage indolence and bad execution. For the lower class of laborers, especially such as are hired by the year, it will often be necessary to attend as well to the food they eat, as to their constancy at work. In the case of farm servants, for example, it will generally be found preferable to board and lodge single men, than to substitute a sum of money, which they will in many cases either save or spend, otherwise, than so as to strengthen their bodies. Where labor is done by the job, all that is requisite is to see that it is done well, and according to agreement; and this, as we have already observed, is the best mode wherever it can be adopted.

3126. Orderly conduct in the lower classes of workmen, is a point to which we would wish particularly to direct the attention of the bailiff and farmer. Regularity in their hours, neatness and cleanness in their dress; punctuality in cleaning and putting away in the proper places their implements of labor or harness; humanity to working, and other animals; decency in general deportment and conversation, and ambition to excel in their particular department. Neatness and order, whether on an estate, a farm, a stable, a dwelling-house, or in a man's dress and manner, forms an index to every thing else. Estates and farms where these qualities prevail, are always well-managed and cultivated; a neat and clean stable is a sure sign of well-conditioned horses, and of economical feeding; a dwelling-house, with neatness around and within, is an index of comfort and peace; and a decently dressed and well behaved man or woman, are sure to be approved, whatever may be their station.

3127. The necessity of order and neatness we are most anxious to impress on the minds of all descriptions of masters and managers. Order, it has been well observed, is "Heaven's first law." It is, indeed, the end of all law: without it, nothing worth having is to be attained in life, even by the most fertile in resources; and with it much may be accomplished with very slender means. A mind incapable of an orderly and regular disposition of its ideas or intentions, will display a man confused and disorderly in his actions; he will begin them without a specific object in view; continue them at random, or from habit, without knowing well why, till, some accident or discordant result puts an end to his present progress, unman's him for life, or awakens reflection. But a well-ordered mind reflects, arranges, and systematizes ideas before attempting to realize them, weighs well the end in view, considers the fitness of the means for attaining that end, and the best mode of employing these means. To every man who has the

regulation and disposal of a number of servants, this mode of orderly arrangement is essentially ne cessary in order to reap the full effects of their labors; and to no man is it of more importance than to agriculturists, whose cares are so various, and the success of whose operations, always connected with, and dependant on living beings, depends so much on their being performed in the fitting moment.

3128. Propriety relates to what is fitting and suitable for particular circumstances; it is the natural result of an orderly mind, and may be said to include that part of order which directs the choice and adaptation of means to ends, and of ideas and objects to cases and situations. It belongs to order for a master to allow workmen proper periods for rest and refreshment; propriety dictates the time and duration of these periods, and prudence suggests the wisdom of departing as little as possible from established practices. Decorum is the refinement of propriety.

3129. Neatness, as opposed to slovenliness, is well understood; it consists in having every thing where it ought to be; and in attending to the decorum of finishing operations, and to minute things in general.

3130. As maxims of order and neatness which ought to be continually present to the mind both of masters and servants, we submit the following:

3131. Perform every operation in the proper season. The natural, and therefore the best indications for the operations of sowing and reaping, transplanting, &c. are given by the plants themselves, or by the progress of the season as indicated by other plants. But there are artificial kalendars or remembrancers, the use of which is to remind the master of the leading crops and operations of culture and management throughout the year. But, even if such books were made as perfect as their nature admits of, still they are only calculated to aid the memory, not to supply the place of a watchful and vigilant eye, and habits of attention, observation, reflection, and decision. Unless a steward or farmer has these, either naturally, or partly natural and partly cultivated, in a considerable degree, he will be but little better than a common laborer as to general management and culture of garden scenery.

3132. Perform every operation in the best manner. practice and partly also by reflection.

This is to be acquired in part by

3133. Complete every part of an operation as you proceed. This is an essential point in field operations, and though it cannot always be attended to, partly from the nature of the operation, partly from weather, &c. yet the judicious farmer or bailiff will keep it in view as much as possible.

3134. Finish one job before you begin another. This advice is trite, but it is of great importance; and there are few cases where it cannot be attended to.

3135. In leaving off working at any job, leave your work and tools in an orderly manner. 3136. Attend strictly to the hours of commencing labor, and equally so to those of leaving off, unless extraordinary exertion is required.

3137. Whenever extraordinary exertions are required, extraordinary indulgences or rewards must be given as compensations.

3138. A regular system of accounts is an obvious part of order and correctness; and it is equally obvious that the extent to which this must be carried, will depend on the subject of management. In the case of extensive landed estates, the regular set of books usual in mercantile concerns becomes requisite, with the addition of some, as a forest-book, time-book, &c. rendered necessary by particular departments of the subject. On small farms, on the other hand, some memorandum-books, a cash-book, and a ledger are all that will be found necessary. Our business here is to give the form of the time-book, which is or may be common to every department of agriculture and scale of management, though most necessary for bailiffs, where a number of day labourers are employed on improvements. In giving the practice of the different branches of agriculture, the books peculiar to each will be described,

3139. The time-book is a large folio volume, ruled so as to read across both pages, with columns titled, as in the specimen annexed. In this the bailiff or master inserts the name of every hand; and the time in days, or proportions of a day, which each person under his care has been at work, and the particular work he or she has been engaged in. At the end of each week the bailiff or master sums up the time from the preceding Saturday or Monday, to the Friday or Saturday inclusive; the sum due or to be advanced to each man is put in one column, and when the man receives it he writes the word received in the column before it, and signs his name as a receipt in the succeeding column. The time-book, therefore, will show what every man has been engaged in during every hour in the year for which he has been paid, and it will also contain receipts for every sum, however trifling, which has been paid by the bailiff for rural labor. In short, it would be difficult to contrive a book more satisfactory for both master and servant than the time-book, as it prevents, as far as can well be done, the latter from deceiving either himself or his employer, and remains an authentic indisputable record of work done, and of vouchers for money paid during the whole period of the bailiff's services.

3140. Time-Book. 1824, Sept. 8th to 15th. Time, Expense, and Occupation of hired Servants and Labourers employed at Longlands, under the Bailiff, A. D.

PART III.

AGRICULTURE AS PRACTISED IN BRITAIN.

3142. In the first Part of this work we have endeavored to give a concise view of the actual state of agriculture in every country, with a view to interest the reader in the subject, and prepare him for entering in detail on the elementary principles of the art. In the second Part, these principles and elementary departments of agricultural knowledge, have been developed in successive views of the nature of vegetables, animals, and soils, and the mechanism and science of agricultural implements and operations. As far as these elementary principles go, they are applicable to the agriculture of every part of the world, with the modifications required by different physical and geographical circumstances; but as such an application is not required, in a work designed principally for this country, we limit this part of our work to the agriculture of Britain, in its most improved mode of practice. In the extensive sense in which we have applied the term Agriculture, this will include, 1st, the valuation, purchase, and transfer; 2d, the laying out or arrangement; 3d, the improvement; and 4th, the management of landed property; 5th, the hiring and stocking of farms; 6th, the culture of farm lands; and 7th, the economy of live stock and the dairy.

BOOK I.

OF THE VALUATION, PURCHASE, AND TRANSFER OF LANDED PROPERTY. 3143. On the existence of property depends all human improvement. Personal property is the first acquirement of man; but scarcely any progress is made in civilization till property in land is established and rendered secure. Landed property, indeed, is the basis on which every other material property is founded, and the origin from which it has sprung. The landed estates of Britain, as a species of property, may be considered in regard to tenure, valuation, and transfer.

CHAP. I.

Of the different Kinds and Tenures of landed Property, in the British Isles. 3144. As landed property is somewhat different as to tenure, in the three United Kingdoms, we shall notice the leading features of each separately.

SECT. I. Of the Kinds of landed Property, and its different Tenures in England. 3145. Territorial property in England, Marshal observes, aptly separates into two principal divisions; - namely, into possessory property, or the actual possession of the lands and their appurtenances; and into abstract rights arising out of them.

3146. Possessory property comprises, the soil, or land itself; the minerals and fossils it covers; the waters annexed to it; the wood and herbage it produces; and the buildings, fences, &c. thereon erected.

3147. Abstract rights are, seigniorial, as chief rents, &c. ; manorial, as quit-rents, fines, &c.; prescriptive, as common rights; predial, as tithes; parochial, as taxes.

3148. Advowson and parliamentary interest might be added; as they are not unfrequently attached to landed property.

3149. Possessory property is further liable to analysis, and to more particular distinctions.

3150. Freehold. If lands are held unconditionally, and in full possession, without any other superior than the constitution and laws of the country, they are termed freehold; a term which admits of still further distinctions.