of no more than from six to eight hours' work, they are very generally fed with different kinds of straw, according to the circumstances of the farm; in the month of March they are again put to hay till the grass is ready for being cut. Throughout all the year they are allowed more or less corn, when constantly worked; and during the time they are on dry fodder, particularly when on straw, they have potatoes, yams, or Swedish turnips, once a day, sometimes boiled barley, and, in a few instances, carrots. A portion of some of these roots is of great importance to the health of horses, when succulent herbage is first exchanged for hay at the end of autumn; and it is no less so towards the latter end of spring, when hay has become sapless, and the labor is usually severe. these two periods, therefore, it is the practice of all careful managers, to give an ample allowance of some of these roots, even though they should be withheld for a few weeks during the intermediate period. At 6084. The quantity of these different articles of food must depend on the size of the horses, and the labor they perform; and the value upon the prices of different seasons, and, in every season, on the situation of the farm with respect to markets, particularly for hay and roots, which bring a very different price near large towns, and at a few miles distant. It is for these reasons, that the yearly expense of a horse's maintenance has been estimated at almost every sum, from 15l. to 40l. But it is only necessary to attend to the expense of feeding horses that are capable of performing the labor required of them, under the most correct and spirited management. Such horses are fed with oats, sometimes with beans, three times a day, for about eight months; and twice a day for the other four, when at grass; and, at the rate of eight feeds per bushel, each horse will eat fifteen quarters of oats, or twenty bolls Linlithgow measure in the year. When on hay, he will require about one stone of twenty-two pounds avoirdupois daily, and five pounds more if he does not get roots. One English acre of clover and rye-grass, and tares, may be necessary for four months' soiling; and a quarter of an acre of potatoes, yams, or Swedish turnips, during the eight months he is fed with hay or straw. The use of these roots may admit of a small diminution of the quantity of corn in the winter months, or a part of it may be, as it almost always is, of an inferior quality. 6085. The expense of feeding a horse throughout the year, may therefore be estimated, in regard to quantities, as follows: Oats, fifteen quarters. Soiling, one acre of clover and rye-grass, and tares. Hay part of October and November, March, April, and Straw for other four months, half the price of hay. (Sup., &c. art. Agr.) 6086. The extent of land required for a horse's maintenance, supposing the soil to be of a medium quality, may be about five acres; that is, for oats three acres, soiling one, and one more for hay and roots. On rich soils four acres will be sufficient, but on poor soils, and wherever horses are kept at pasture, the produce of six acres and a half, or seven acres, will be consumed by one of them, when worked in the manner already mentioned. The straw of about two acres must be allowed for fodder and litter, the last of which has not been stated above, because, at a distance from towns, what is allowed for litter must at any rate be converted into dung. If sixty acres, therefore, should be assumed as the average extent of land that may be kept in cultivation by two horses, according to the best courses of modern husbandry, the produce of ten acres of this will be required for their maintenance; or, a horse consumes the produce of one acre out of every six which he cultivates, according to a four or six years' course, and sometimes more than one acre out of every five which he ploughs annually. (General Report of Scotland, vol. iii. p. 192.) CHAP. II. The Ass.- Equus Asinus, L. Ane, Fr.; Esel, Ger.; Asno, Span. and Asino, Ital. 6087. The ass is a native of the mountainous deserts of Tartary, of Arabia, Persia, and other parts of the Asiatic continent; and at present is very generally domesticated throughout most civilized countries. The wild ass feeds chiefly on the most saline or bitter plants of the desert, as the kalis, atriplices, chenopodium, &c.; and also prefers the saltest and most brackish water to that which is fresh. Of this the hunters are aware, and usually station themselves near the ponds to which they resort to drink. Their manners greatly resemble those of the wild horse. They assemble in troops under the conduct of a leader, or centinel; and are extremely shy and vigilant. They will, however, stop in the midst of their course, and even suffer the approach of man, and then dart off with the utmost rapidity. They have been at all times celebrated for their swiftness. Their voice resembles that of the common ass, but is shriller. 6088. The excellencies and defects of the common ass have amply engaged the lively pens of several descriptive writers on the history of animals; and of none with more happy effect than those of the eloquent Buffon, and the ingenious Abbé la Pluche. The ass, in his natural temper, is humble, patient, and quiet, and bears correction with firmness. He is extremely hardy, both with regard to the quantity and quality of his food, contenting himself with the most harsh and disagreeable herbs, which other animals will scarcely touch. In the choice of water he is, however, very nice; drinking only of that which is perfectly clear, and at brooks with which he is acquainted. He is very serviceable to many persons who are not able to buy or keep horses; especially where they live near heaths or commons, the barrenest of which will keep him; being contented with any kind of coarse herbage, such as dry leaves, stalks, thistles, briers, chaff, and any sort of straw. He requires very little looking after, and sustains labor beyond most others. He is seldom or never sick; and endures hunger and thirst longer than most other kinds of animals. The ass may be made use of in husbandry to plough light lands, to carry burdens, to draw in mills, to fetch water, cut chaff, or any other similar purposes. The female (fig. 636.) is also 636 useful in many cases for her milk, which is excellent; and she might be of more advantage to the farmer if used, as in foreign countries, for the purpose of breeding of mules. The skin of the ass is extremely hard, and very elastic, and is used for various purposes; such as to cover drums, make shoes, or parchment. It is of the skin of this animal that the Orientals make the fagri, or, as we call it, shagreen. The milk of the ass is the lightest of all milks, and is recommended by medical men, to persons of delicate stomachs; the flesh, and the hair of the tail and mane, are used as those of the horse. 6089. The ass attains his full growth in three or four years, and may then be put to work. Like the horse he will live to 25 or 30 years; it is said the female lives longer than the male; but, perhaps, this happens from their being often pregnant, and at those times having some care taken of them, instead of which the males are constantly worn out with fatigue and blows. They sleep less than the horse, and do not lie down to sleep, except when they are exceedingly tired. The male ass also lasts much longer than the stallion; the older he is, the more ardent he appears; and, in general, the health of this animal is much better than that of the horse; he is less delicate, and not nearly so subject to maladies. Ophthalmia, which may be reckoned among the indigenæe of the cultivated horse, is almost unknown to the ass. Contraction of the feet also, is very seldom observed in him. 6090. The different breeds or races of the ass are much less known than those of the horse, because in this country they have not been taken the same care of, or followed with the same attention. Travellers inform us, that there are two sorts of asses in Persia, one of which, being slow and heavy, is used for bur 637 dens; and the other is kept like horses for the saddle. The latter have smooth hair, carry their heads well, and are much quicker in their motion; but when they ride them they sit nearer the buttocks than when on horseback. They are dressed like horses, and like them are taught to amble; and they cleave their nostrils to give them more room for breathing. According to Dr. Russell, there are two sorts in Syria, one of which are like fours, and the other very large, with remarkably long ears; but both kinds are employed for the purpose of carrying burdens, and sedan chairs. (fig. 637.) 6091. In breeding from the ass, the same general rules should be attended to as in the horse breeding. The male ass will procreate at the age of two and a half years, and the female still earlier. The stallion ass should be chosen from the largest and strongest of his species; he must at least be three years old, but should not exceed ten; his legs should be long, his body plump, head long and light, eyes brisk, nostrils and chest large, neck long, loins fleshy, ribs broad, rump flat, tail short, hair shining, soft to the touch, and of a deep grey. Those are reckoned the best shaped that are well squared, have large eyes, wide nostrils, long necks, broad breasts, high shoulders, a great back, short tail, the hair sleek, and of a blackish color. 6092. The best time of covering is from the latter end of May to the beginning of June, nor must the female be hard worked whilst with foal, for fear of casting; but the more the male is worked, in moderation, the better he will thrive. She brings forth her foal in about a twelvemonth, but, to preserve a good breed, she should not produce more than one in two years. She should be covered between the months of March and June. The best age to breed at is from three years old to ten. When the foal is cast, it is proper to let it run a year with the dam, and then wean it by tying up and giving it grass, and sometimes milk; and,when it has forgot the teat, it should be turned out into a pasture; but, if it be in winter, it must then be fed at times, till it be able to shift for itself. 6093. The ass may be broken and trained at the end of the second year; but should not be worked sooner than the third year. Breaking is easily effected when two years old, or it may be let alone still longer, as till three years. It is easily done by laying small weights on his back, and increasing them by degrees; then set a boy upon him, and so increase the weights as may be proper, till they are sufficiently heavy. At 6094. The age of the ass is known by his teeth in the same manner as the horse. two years and a half old, the first middle incisive teeth fall out, and the other on each side soon follow; they are renewed at the same time, and in the same order. 6095. The anatomy and physiology of the ass do not differ from those of the horse essen tially. The concha cartilages of the ears are, however, considerably more elongated: the spinous processes of the dorsal vertebræ forming the withers are less extensive; and the bones of the extremities in general are less angularly placed; from whence results his inferiority in speed. It is also to the unbending lines of the spine, that his motions are rendered so uneasy to a person placed on the middle of his back. Some specialty occurs in the feet, which, like the horses of arid climes, are small and upright. His laryngeal sonorous sacs and cordæ vocales are not altogether like those of the horse, from whence his aptitude to bray instead of neighing. In the ass there are three laryngeal sacs as in the horse; but instead of a wide opening into them, there is a small round hole, and the anterior sac is a real bag of considerable size. In the horse, there is also, at the commissure of the corda vocales, a slight membranous fold not visible in the ass. These organs in the mule are compounded of these forms. Braying appears produced through the mouth, whereas neighing is principally effected by the nose. There is a hollow membranous cavity at the back of the mouth that is greatly assistant to this trumpet-like noise, which is effected by convulsively displacing the velum palati by alternate inspirations and expirations. 6096. The diseases of the ass, as far as they are known, bear a general resemblance to those of the horse. As he is more exposed, however, and left to live in a state more approaching to natural, he has few diseases. Those few, however, are less attended to than they ought to be; and it is for the veterinary practitioner to extend to this useful and patient animal the benefit of his art, in common with those of other animals. The ass is seldom or never troubled with vermin, probably from the hardness of its skin. 6097. The ass is shod with a narrow web, and with heels projecting beyond the heel of the foot, and slightly turned up, for he seldom overreaches; but much care is required in using small nails, and in very carefully driving them. The hinder shoes differ little from those used for the fore feet. CHAP. III. Of the Mule and Hinny, Hybrids of the Horse and Ass. Mulus, L. y' 6098. The Mule- Equus Asinus, var. Grand Mulet, Fr.; Grosser Maulessel, Ger. ; Mula, Span, and Ital.-is the hybrid produce of an ass with a mare; having a large clumsy head, long erect ears, a short mane, and a thin tail, 6099. The Hinny- Equus Asinus, var. 8. Hinnus, L. Bardeau or Petit Mulet, Fr.; Kleiner Maulessel, Ger.; Mulo, Span. and Ital.- is the hybrid produce between the she-ass and a stallion; the head is long and thin, the ears are like those of a horse, the mane is short, and the tail is well filled with hair. The hinny is much less common than the mule, because, being less hardy and useful than the other, he is never cultivated. 6100. The mule, commonly so called, is much valued for the saddle, and for drawing carriages in Spain, Portugal, Italy, and the East, and in the warmer parts of America. In those countries where great attention is paid to the breed, it is as tall as the horse, exceedingly well-limbed, but not so handsome, especially about the head and tail. These animals are mostly sterile; some, indeed, have thought that they are altogether incapable of producing their kind; but some few instances have occurred, in which female mules have had foals, and in which even the male has impregnated females both of the ass and horse species, though such instances are exceedingly rare. 6101. The mules made use of in the southern parts of Europe, are now brought to an astonishing perfec tion as well as great size. (fig. 638.) They are usually black, strong, well-limbed, and large, being most ly bred out of fine Spanish mares. They are sometimes fifteen or sixteen hands high, and the best of them worth forty or fifty pounds. No creatures are so proper for large burdens, and none so sure-footed. They are much stronger for draught than our horses, and are often as thick-set as our dray-horses, and will travel several months together, with six or eight hundred weight upon their backs. Some think it surprising that these animals are not more propagated here, as they are so much hardier and stronger than horses, less subject to discases, and capable of living and working to twice the age of a horse. Those that are bred in cold countries are more hardy and fit for labor than those bred in hot; and those which are light made are fitter for riding than horses, as to the walk and trot ; but they are apt to gallop rough; though these do it much less than the short-made ones. The general complaint made against them is, that they kick and are stubborn; but this is owing to neglect in breeding them, for they are as gentle as horses in countries where they are bred with proper care. 6102. In the breeding of mules, mares that are of a very large breed and well made should be employed. They should be young, full of life, large barrelled, but small limbed, with a moderate sized head, and a good forehand. It is found of advantage to have the foals from the time of their being dropped often handled, to make them gentle: it prevents their hurting themselves by skittishness and sudden frights; and they are much easier broken at the proper age, and become docile and harmless, having nothing of that viciousness which is so commonly complained of in these animals. They may be broken at three years old, but should never be permitted to do much hard work till four, as they are thus secured from being hurt by hard labor, till they have acquired strength enough to bear it without injury. An expert breeder of these animals found, that feeding them too well while young, though it made them very fat, was far from being any advantage to them; as it was not only incurring a much larger expense than was any way necessary, but also made them wonderfully nice and delicate in their appetites ever after, and also by increasing their weight of flesh, rendered them more subject to strains and hurts in their morning gambols. He therefore contented himself with giving them food enough to prevent their losing flesh, and to keep up their growth without palling their appetites with delicacies, or making them over-fat: he also took care to defend them from the injuries of the weather by allowing them stable room, and good litter to sleep on, besides causing them every day to be well rubbed down with a hard wisp of straw by an active groom. This was scarcely ever omitted, particularly in cold, raw, wet weather, when they were least inclined to exercise themselves. When three years old, mules are proper for use. 6103. The shoe for the mule is for the fore foot very similar to that which farriers call the bar shoe. It is very wide and large, especially at the toe, where it sometimes projects four inches and upwards beyond the hoof This excess is given it with a view to enlarge the basis of the foot, which is in general exceedingly narrow in this animal. The shoe for the hind feet is open at the heels, like the horse's shoe: but it is lengthened at the toe, like the preceding one. Mules are however by no means invariably shod in this manner it is not unusual to shoe them either like horses or asses, as they approach the one or the other in size or work required. 6104. The neat or horned cattle used in agriculture are included under two species of Bos; the B. taurus or Ox, and the B. bubulus or Buffalo; the latter less used in Britain than on the continent and in other countries. These animals are more universally used as beasts of draught and burthen than the horse, and have the additional advantage of furnishing excellent food and other valuable products. There is scarcely a country in which the ox or the buffallo is not either indigenous, or naturalized and cultivated; while in many parts of the world, the horse is either wanting, or reserved for the purposes of war or the saddle. SECT. I. Of the Ox. Bos Taurus, L. Ochs, Ger.; Bœuf, Fr.; Bucy, Spar., and 6105. The male or is the Bull, Taureau, Fr.; Stier, Ger.; Toro, Span. and Ital.; and the female the Cow, Vache Fr.; Kuh, Ger.; and Vaca, Span. and Ital. The bull and cow inhabit various parts of the world, and, as already observed, are domesticated every where. In most countries, however, they are the mere creatures of soil and climate, the same attention in breeding and rearing that is bestowed on the horse being withheld; the natural habits little restrained or the form improved for the purposes of milking, fattening, or for labor. It is almost exclusively in Britain that this race of animals have been improved so as to present breeds for each of these purposes, far superior to what are to be found in a state of nature or in any other country. Notwithstanding this, however, much certainly remains to be known regarding the nutriment afforded by different kinds of herbage and roots; the quantity of food consumed by different breeds, in proportion as well to their weight at the time, as to the ratio of their increase, and the propriety of employing large or small animals in any given circumstances. Even with regard to the degrees. of improvement made by fatting cattle generally, from the consumption of a given weight of roots or herbage, no great accuracy is commonly attempted; machines for weighing the cattle themselves and their food, from time to time, not being yet in general use in any part of Britain. We shall consider the bull family as to his variety, criteria, breeding, rearing, feeding, working, fattening, and milking : the manufacture of milk will be treated of in a succeeding chapter. SUBSECT. 1 of the Varieties and Breeds of the Bull. 6106. The varieties of the wild or are the Bonasus and the Bison (fig. 130.); the first with a long mane, and the last with a gibbous back. They inhabit the woods in Madagascar and many other countries of the east; and the bison is even said to be found in Poland. 6107. The varieties of the cultivated or are the European, Indian, Zebu, Surat, Abyssinian, Madagascar, Tinian, and African. From the European variety have been formed the different breeds cultivated in Britain. They are very numerous, but we shall only notice such as are in most esteem. These different breeds are generally distinguished by the length or flexure of their horns, by the absence of horns, by the districts where they are supposed to have originated, abound, or exist in the greatest purity, or by the name of the breeder. 639 6108. The long-horned or Lancashire breed of cattle (fig. 639.) is distinguished from others by the length of their horns, the thickness and firm texture of their hides, the length and closeness of their hair, the large size of their hoofs, and coarse, leathery, thick necks; they are likewise deeper in their fore quarters, and lighter in their hind quarters than most other breeds; narrower in their shape, less in point of weight than the short horns, though better weighers in proportion to their size; and though they give considerably less milk, it is said to afford more cream in proportion to its quantity. They are more varied in their color than any of the other breeds; but, whatever the color be, they have in general a white streak along their back, which the breeders term finched, and mostly a white spot on the inside of the hough. (Culley, p. 53.) In a general view, this race, notwithstanding the singular efforts that have been made towards its improvement, remains with little alteration; for, excepting in Leicestershire, none of the subvarieties (which differ a little in almost every one of those counties where the long horns prevail) have undergone any radical change or any obvious improvement. The improved breed of Leicestershire (fig. 640.), is said to have been formed by Webster, of Cauley near Coventry, in Warwickshire, by means of six cows brought from the banks of the Trent, about the beginning of the present century, which were crossed with-bulls from Westmoreland and Lancashire. 640 Bakewell, of Dishley in Leicestershire, afterwards got the lead as a breeder, by selecting from the Cauley stock; and the stocks of several other eminent breeders have been traced to the same source. (Marshal's Midland Counties, vol. i. p. 318.) 6109. The short-horned, sometimes called the Dutch breed, is known by a variety of names, taken from the districts where they form the principal cattle stock, or where 641 The most attention has been paid to their improvement: thus, different families of this race are distinguished by the names of the Holderness, the Teeswater, the Yorkshire, Durham, Northumberland, and other breeds. Teeswater breed, a variety of short horns, established on the banks of the Tees, at the head of the vale of York, is at present in the highest estimation, and is alleged to be the true Yorkshire short-horned breed. Bulls and cows from this stock, purchased at most extraordinary prices, are spread over all the north of England, and the border counties of Scotland. The bone, head, and neck of these cattle are fine; the hide is very thin; the chine full; the loin broad, and the carcase throughout large and well-fashioned; and the flesh and fatting quality equal, or perhaps superior to those of any other large breed. The short-horns give a greater quantity of milk than any other cattle; a cow usually yielding twenty-four quarts of milk per day, making three firkins of butter during the grass season: their colors are much varied, but they are generally red and white mixed, or what the breeders call flecked. The heaviest and largest oxen of the short |