fused to listen to the proposals, though enforced by all the arguments Dr. Franklin could make use of. On his return to Philadelphia, Congress, sensible how much he was esteemed in France, sent him there to put a finishing hand to the private negocia tion of Mr. Silas Deane; and this important commission was readily accepted by the doctor, though then in the 71st year of his age: the event is well known; a treaty of alliance and commerce was signed between France and America; and M. le Roi asserts, that the doctor had a great share in the transaction, by strongly advising M. Maurepas not to lose a single moment if he wished to secure the friendship of America, and to detach it from the mother country.

In 1777, he was regularly appointed Plenipotentiary from Congress to the French court; but obtained leave of dismission in 1780. Having at length seen the full accomplishment of his wishes, by the conclusion of the peace in 1783, which gave independence to America, he became desirous of revisiting his native country: he therefore requested to be recalled; and, after repeated solicitations, Mr. Jefferson was appointed in his stead. On the arrival of his successor, he repaired to Havre de Grace, and, crossing the channel, landed at Newport in the Isle of White, from whence, after a favourable passage, he arrived safe at Philadelphia, in September 1785. He was received amidst the acclamations of a vast multitude, who flocked from all parts to see him, and who conducted him in triumph to his own house; where in a few days he was visited by the members of Congress, and the principal inhabitants of Philadelphia. He was afterwards twice chosen President of the Assembly of Philadelphia; but his increasing infirmities obliged him to ask permission to retire and spend the remainder of his life in tranquillity, which was granted in 1788. After this the infirmities of age increased fast upon him; he became more and more afflicted with the gout and the stone till the time of his death, which happened the 17th of April, 1790, about 11 o'clock at night, at 84 years of age, leaving one son, Governor William Franklin, a zealous loyalist, who now resides in London; and a daughter, married to Mr. William Beach, merchant in Philadelphia.

Dr. Franklin was author of many tracts on electricity and other branches of natural philosophy, as well as on political and miscellaneous subjects. He had also many

papers inserted in the Philosophical Transactions, from the year 1757 to 1774. FRANKS. See LETTER.

FRAPPING, in naval affairs, the act of crossing and drawing together the several parts of the tackle, or other complication of ropes, which had been already strained to their utmost extent; in this sense it resembles the operation of bracing a drum. The frapping increases tension, and consequently adds to the security acquired by the purchase.

FRAUD. All deceitful practices in defrauding, or endeavouring to defraud, another of his own right, by means of some artful device, contrary to the plain rules of common honesty, are condemned by the common law, and punishable according to the heinousness of the offence.

The distinction laid down, as proper to be attended to in all cases of this kind, is this, that in such impositions or deceits, where common prudence might guard persons from the offence, it is not indictable, but the party is left to his civil remedy; but where false weights or measures are used, or false tokens produced, or such measures taken to defraud or deceive, as people cannot by any ordinary care or prudence be guarded against, there it is an offence indictable. Persons convicted of obtaining money or goods by false pretences, or sending threatening letters to extort money or goods, may be punished by fine and imprisonment, or by pillory, whipping, or transportation. 30 G. II. c. 24.

FRAXINUS, in botany, English ashtree, a genus of the Polygamia Dioecia class and order. Natural order of Sepiariæ. Jasmineæ, Jussieu. Essential character: hermaphrodite; calyx none, or fourparted; corolla none, or four-petalled; stamins two; pistal one; seed or capsule one, lanceolate. There are four species. The wood of the ash-tree is in great use among several artificers, as wheel-wrights, cartwrights, carpenters, turners, &c. also for making ploughs, harrows, axle-trees, oars, &c. It is said to be as lasting for building as oak, and often preferred before it; though the timber of the trunk greatly excels that of a bough. Some ash is also so curiously veined, that the cabinet-makers think it equal to ebony, and call it green ebony; so that the woodmen, who light upon such trees, may have for it what they will. The season for felling this tree, is from November to February; for if cut down too early, or too late, it is liable to

the worm. The ash is hurtful to corn lands, and therefore should be planted either in hedges or clumps, at about nine or ten feet distance.

FRECKLES, spots of a yellowish colour, of the bigness of a lentile-seed, scattered over the face, neck, and hands. Freckles are either natural, or proceeding accidentally from the jaundice, or the action of the sun upon the part. Heat, or a sudden change of the weather, will often cause the skin to appear of a darker colour than natural, and thereby produce what is called tan, sunburn, &c. which seem to differ only in degree, and usually disappear in winter.

Persons of a fine complexion, and those whose hair is red, are the most subject to freckles, especially in those parts which they expose to the air.

FREE bench, in law, is the widow's share of her husband's cópyhold, or customary lands, in the nature of dower, which is variable according to the customs in different places. In some manors it is one third, sometimes half, sometimes the whole during her widowhood, of all the copyhold or customary land which her husband died possessed of. In some places, by custom, she holds them only during her chaste viduity.

FREEHOLD may be in deed or in law. A freehold in deed, is actual seisin of lands or tenements in fee-simple, fee-tail, or for life. A freehold in law, is a right to such lands or tenements before entry or seizure. So there is a seisin in deed, and a seisin in law; a seisin in deed, is when a corporal possession is taken, and a seisin in law is where lands descend before entry, or where something is done which amounts in law to an actual seisin. Tenant in fec-simple, or fee-tail, for life, is said to have a freehold, so called, because it distinguishes it from term of years, chattels upon certain interests, lands in villenage, or customary or copyhold lands. See FEE-SIMPLE. A freehold cannot be conveyed to pass in futuro, for then there would be want of a tenant against whom to bring a præcipe, and therefore, notwithstanding such conveyance, the freehold continues in the vendor; but if livery of seisin be afterwards given, the freehold from thence passes to the vendee. A man is said to be seised of freehold, but to be possessed of other estates, as of copyhold lands, leases for years, or goods and chattels. See ESTATE and FEE

SIMPLE.

FREE stone, a whitish stone, dug up in many parts of England, that works like alabaster, but is more hard and durable; being of excellent use in building, &c. It is a kind of the grit-stone, but finer sanded, and a smoother stone, and is called free, from its being of such a constitution as to cut freely in any direction: such is the Portland-stone, and the free-stone of Kent.

FREIGHT is the consideration money agreed to be paid for the use or hire of a ship, or, in a larger sense, the burthen of such ship. The freight is most frequently determined for the whole voyage, without respect to time'; sometimes it depends on time; in the former case it is either fixed at a certain sum for the whole cargo, or so much per ton, barrel, bulk, or other weight or measure, or so much per cent. on the value of the cargo. If a certain sum be agreed on for the freight of the ship, it must all be paid, although the ship, when measured, should prove smaller, unless the burthen be warranted. If the ship be freighted for transporting cattle or slaves, at so much per head, and some of them die on the passage, freight is only due for such as are delivered alive; if for lading them, it is due for all put on board. When a whole ship is freighted, if the master suffer any goods besides those of the freight to be put on board, he is liable for damages. If the voyage be completed according to the agreement, without any accident, the master has a right to demand the freight before the delivery of the goods; but if such delivery is prevented by negligence, or accidents, the parties will be reciprocally responsible in the following manner: If the merchant should not load the ship within the time agreed on, the master may engage with another, and recover damages. If the merchant recal the ship after she is laden and sailed, he must pay the whole freight; but if he unload before the ship has actually sailed, he will in such case only be responsible for damages. If the merchant load goods which are not lawful to export, and the ship be prevented from proceeding on that account, he must nevertheless pay the freight. If the master be not ready to proceed on the voyage at the time stipulated, the merchant may load the whole, or part of the cargo, on board another ship, and recover damages; but any real casualties will release the master from all damages. If an embargo be laid on the ship before she sail, the charter-party is dissolved, and the merchant pays the expenses

be placed with others; and statues, intended at first to stand alone, will, with difficulty, enter into composition without some alteration; though the Diana in the Thesus, and the woman with wings in the Telephus, are more contrasted, and have an air of motion.

"The general taste of the composition is remarkable, not only for its resemblance to statues, as I have observed before, but to bas reliefs also. It is clear that the authors had them present to their imagination, and that they had made on their minds a very lively impression.

"The demi-tints are of an olive grey, or of a yellowish or reddish cast, and the shades of red, mixed with black. The draperies, in general, are made with little plaits, formed of light and flexible stuffs, after the style of Roman sculpture." The picture of Telephus is, however, an exception, and seems to lead the author to think, that the artist who performed this piece, was superior to those who executed the others.

In the aggregate there are no groupes, harmony, or claro obscuro. Each figure stands, as it were, independent, with its own light and shade only, neither receiving reflected light from the next, nor casting shade on it; nor are the shades broken, but done with the same colour as the half tints, and have merely less white; this peculiarity arose from their deficiency in the science of perspective, which reduced the artist to the necessity of making the graduation of distance by the faintness of his colours. "For the rest," adds the Count, "the pictures are done with ease, the touch is bold, and the pencil handled freely, the colouring being sometimes laid on patches, and sometimes softened down; in a word, the execution is light, and in the same style nearly as we paint the decorations of our theatres, the whole indicating a great practice in the artists."

Thus much is considered necessary, in order to show that the adoption of many colours in Fresco paintings, took place subsequent to 471; like all other arts, it must have been improved by degrees, and it cannot be doubted, that the great masters, whose labours still adorn the numerous churches and palaces in Italy, contributed largely to its perfection, though it is well known that many of their best works have suffered from damps, which it is presumed will prevent their stability wherever it prevails. This circumstance has operated to

so great a degree in St. Peter's at Rome, that most of the old pictures have been replaced by others in Mosaic. See Mo

SAIC.

The same cause has prevented the frequent use of Fresco painting in England, except in mansions where a dry air is constantly preserved, the necessity of this precaution is demonstrated at present in the dome of St. Paul's. The manner of performing this description of painting, is to work while the plaster is wet which covers the wall to be decorated, consequently, in the execution of large subjects, the process of plastering must immediately precede the brush of the artist, and only in the proportion he works, that the colours may incorporate with the composition, and that it may not absorb the water which dilutes them, and prevent the free touches intended for effect.

Vitruvius, who calls Fresco painting udo tectorio, gives an accurate account of the extreme care which the ancients thought necessary in preparing the stuccoes for the colours, and it must be admitted that they succeeded admirably, when we consider how very perfect the remains of their productions now are, after undergoing the sulphurous inhumation of ashes, caused by the eruption of Vesuvius, one thousand three hundred and thirty seven years past. The moderns, however, conceive that their lime and sand is preferable.

The design intended for a wall, should be drawn on paper, or any substance from whence it may be transferred to the wet plaster; the mode of proceeding must afterwards be similar to that practised in painting upon canvass. The colours should be earths, exclusively, diluted with water sufficiently to make them flow freely, but not to decompose the plaster and mix its surface with them; long soft haired brushes should therefore be préferred.

FRESH suit, in law, is such a ready and earnest following of an offender, as never ceases from the time of the offence being committed or discovered, until he be apprehended; and the effect of this, in the pursuit of a felon, is, that the party pursuing shall have his goods again, whereas otherwise, they are forfeited to the King. Anciently the law was strict in this case, but now the goods are, in all cases, restored to the party.

FRESH, a term used at sea, to signify a strong, but not violent or dangerous wind:

hence, when the gale increases, it is said to freshen. In the plural, the word implies the impetuosity of an ebb-tide, increasing by heavy rains and flowing out into the sea, which it often discolours to a considerable distance from the shore, so that the line which divides the two colours, may be perceived distinctly for a great length along the coast.

FRET, or FRETTE, in architecture, a kind of knot or ornament, consisting of two lists or small fillets, variously interlaced or interwoven, and running at parallel distances equal to their breadth.

FRET, in heraldry, a bearing composed of six bars, crossed, and variously interlaced.

FRET, in music, signifies a kind of stop on some instruments, particularly bassviols and lutes. Frets consist of strings tied round the neck of the instrument at certain distances, within which such and such notes are to be found.

FRET work, that adorned with frets. It is sometimes used to fill up and enrich flat empty spaces, but is mostly practised in roofs, which are fretted over with plasterwork. The Italians also use fret-works in the mantling of chimneys, with great figures; a cheap piece of magnificence, and as durable almost within doors, as harder matters in the weather.

FRICTION, in mechanics, the rubbing of the parts of engines and machines against each other, by which means a great part of their effect is destroyed.

It is hardly possible to lay down general rules concerning the quantity of friction, since it depends upon a multiplicity of circumstances, as the structure, firmness, elasticity, &c. of the bodies rubbing against each other. Some authors make friction upon an horizontal plane, equal to one-third of the weight to be moved; whilst others have found it to be considerably less. Two objects must, however, be observed, viz. the loss of power which is occasioned by it, and the contrivances which have been made, and are in use, for the purpose of diminishing its effects. A body of an horizontal plane should be capable of being moved by the application of the least force; but this is not the case, and the principal causes which render a greater or less quantity of force necessary for it, are, 1, the roughness of the contiguous surfaces; 2, the irregularity of the figure, which arises either from the imperfect workmanship, or from the pressure of one body from the other; 3, an adhesion, or attraction, which is more or less VOL. III.

powerful according to the nature of the bodies in question; and 4, the interposition of extraneous bodies, such as moisture, dust, &c.

Innumerable experiments have been made for the purpose of determining the quantity of obstruction, or of friction, which is pro. duced in particular circumstances. But the results of apparently similar experi ments, which have been made by different experimenters, do not agree; nor is it likely they should, since the least difference of smoothness or polish, or of hardness, or in short, of any of the various concurring circumstances, produces a different result. Hence no certain and determinate rules can be laid down with respect to the subject of friction. Mr. Vince, who has done much on this subject, infers, 1, That friction is an uniformly retarding force in hard bodies, not subject to alteration by the velocity, except when the body is covered with cloth, woollen, &c. and in this case the friction increases a little with the velocity. 2, Friction increases in a less ratio than the quantity of matter or weight of the body. This increase, however, is different for the different bodies, more or less, nor is it yet sufficiently known for any one body, what proportion the increase of friction bears to the increase of weight. 3, The smallest surface has the least friction, the weight being the same. But the ratio of the friction to the surface is not yet accurately known. Mr. Vince's experiments consisted in determining how far the sliding bodies would be drawn in given times, by a weight hanging freely over a pulley. This method would both shew him if the friction was a constant retarding force, and the other conclusions above stated. For as the spaces described by any constant force, in given times, are as the squares of the times, and as the weight drawing the body is a constant force, if the friction, which acts in opposition to the weight, should also be a constant force; then their difference, or the force by which the body is urged, will also be constant, in which case the spaces described ought to be as the squares of the times, which happened accordingly in the experiments. The friction, cæteris paribus, increases with the weight of the superincumbent body, and almost in the same proportion. The friction, or obstruction which arises from the bending of ropes about machines, is influenced by a variety of circumstances, such as their peculiar quality, the temperature of the atmosphere, and the diameter, or curvature