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onward until their opponents' goal is reached, and the other tring by every means in their power to beat back the ball, and force it in turn into the opponents' ground. Great agility and dexterity are required to play an efficient part in the game. Fostness of foot and quickness of eye are the essential qualif. cations of a good player. When one has caught and is carrying the ball upon his crosse, it is allowed to any of the opposite ite to strike the bail from his crosse with their own weapon Inna, at the moment when, after a long contest, he may be on the point of winning the game by a dextrous fling of the ball, which he has obtained with mach difficulty, it may be jerked or beaten out of his crosse in a contrary direction, and the struggle may be renewed as from the beginning.

As played by the Indians, who adopt a light and picturesque costume for the purpose, the game, as we have said, is highly interesting to the spectator. Their skill in the finer points of the game is admirable. A player, running at full speed, will frequently catch up the ball on the end of his crosse, drop it to the ground to baffle a pursuer, dextrously catch it again, and repeat this until he has either passed it on to one of his own side who is nearer the adversary's goal, or carried it well forward himself. For, contrary to the rule in football, in this game the player is allowed to do all he can to pass the ball on to another competitor on the same side who may place himself in a more favourable position.

The following are the rules to be observed in playing the

game:

The ball must not be caught, thrown, or picked up with the hand, except to take it out of a hole in the grass, to keep it out, of goal, or to protect the face.

The players are not allowed to hold each other, nor to grasp an opponent's crosse, neither may they deliberately trip or strike each other.

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be accidentally put through a goal by one of the it, it is the game for the side attacking that

If the ball be put through a goal by one not actually a player, it does not count for or against either side. A match is decided by winning three games out of five, unless otherwise specially agreed upon.

We give an illustration of the crosse, and believe the instructions herein contained will be sufficient to enable any party of players who may not have seen the game to commence it for themselves. It has all the elements of popularity, especially as a winter amusement, and possesses many of the advantages of other games, without that element of danger which is found, for instance, in football and hockey. An accidental blow from the light stick with which the crosse is fashioned could cause no serious hurt, and beyond this, or the chance of an occasional fall, there is nothing to cause incidental injury to the players.

We conclude our notice of the game with an anecdote, from which it will be seen that it once was on the point of endangering the English rule in Canada. About the middle of the last century, after the conquest by Wolfe, the Indian chief Pontiac planned an attack on some of the principal forts, which was to be carried out by stratagem through the medium of "la crosse." The known skill of the Indians in the game frequently induced the officers of the garrison to invite them to play when they were in the locality, and occasionally some hundreds were engaged. Pontiac designed, on one of these occasions, that the ball should be struck, as if accidentally, into the forts, and that a few of the Indian party should enter after it. This was to be repeated two or three times, until suspicion was lulled, when they were to strike it over again, and rush in large numbers in pursuit. They were then to fall upon the garrison with concealed weapons. This ruse was carried into effect, and partially succeeded; but the Indians failed to enter the strongest of the fortifications, and were beaten back with much slaughter. Pontiac afterwards made friends with the English, but he was a treacherous ally, and it was a subject of congratulation when he was at last killed by one of his own race.

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY.-I.

THE EYE.

THE eye is the instrument by which the mind becomes acquainted with external and distant objects by means of the light, which is one of the most subtle and delicate forces in nature, and needs a correspondingly delicate and complicated organ to appreciate its effects.

Without inquiring into the nature of light, it is sufficient for our subject that we know some of its constant qualities, or laws, as they have been called.

In its simplest condition light travels in straight lines in all directions, from its source; hence, when we see a luminous body, we know the direction in which it lies, because it must lie in the line of the ray which reaches us.

When a ray of light thus travelling in a straight line strikes upon the surface of any object, it is affected in some of the following ways according to the nature of the object and of its surface :

1st. It may be destroyed, as far as visual effects are concerned, partially or wholly.

2nd. It may penetrate the substance of the body, being more or less bent as it traverses the surface. This occurs when the body is transparent.

3rd. It may glance off and pursue a different direction outside the object upon which it strikes.

The first effect is called absorption; the second, refraction; and the third, reflection.

Reflected light concerns us most. The eye occupies itself

a,

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that the problem of how to make a serviceable eye is a difficult one.

The analogy of the mirror, however, must not lead the reader to suppose that a plane surface, sensitive to light, would be conscious of distinct images, or that it would see objects as we, by the aid of the eye, see them reflected on its surface. For distinct vision, it is necessary that many divergent rays proceeding from each point in an object should be collected together again in a point, and that point must lie exactly on the retina, or sentient mirror. Thus, the instrument known as a camera,

n

m

1. VERTICAL SECTION OF THE HUMAN EYE IN ITS SOCKET. sclerotie or hard coat of the eye; b, choroid; c, retina or nervous mirror; d, membrane holding the vitreous humour; e, vitreous humour; f, cornea; g, aqueous chamber and humour; h, crystalline lens; ii, iris; kk, ligament to hold lens; 1, meibomian glands; m m, muscles to wield the eye; n, muscle to lift the eye-lid.

with reflected rays. If light were incapable of being reflected, the sun would appear as a sharply-defined dazzling erb in a pitch-dark universe, and eyes would be of no use; for though poets tell us so, not even the eagle spends its time in so profit less and injurious an employment as gazing on the sun.

Now, as reflected fight travels in straight lines from the object upon which it is reflected, it is to the eye, in all respects, the same as though that object were itself luminous. As light

which has a lens set into the side of a box, and a surface at the other side to receive the image, is a more perfect simile for an eye.

We will now describe the structure of one of the most perfect instruments for taking note of the impression produced by light with which we are acquainted the human eye.

The human eye is globular; differing, however, from a perfect sphere in some slight but important particulars. The thick, tough capsule, which maintains the shape of the eye, and contains all the other parts necessary to perfect vision, is about one inch from front to back, and a little more from side to side and from top to bottom. This is called the sclerotic, or hard coat of the eye. This hard coat, which forms the eyeball, differs from a true sphere also, in that its front part, occupying about one-sixth of its circumference (in section), bulges forward far more than it would do if it were only a part of the larger globe; and this part differs from the other in texture also, for while it is equally strong

and tough, and even harder, it is purely transparent, while the rest of the eyeball is opaque and white. This front clear portion, which is let into the hinder part as a bay-window is put into the wall of a room, or as an old-fashioned watch-glass is

2. DIAGRAM SHOWING HOW OBJECTS ARE IMPRINTED ON THE RETINA.

proceeds from all parts of an object, and travels in straight hines, we have only to let the rays fall upon some surface which shall receive them without derangement, to get an image which will give the colour, form, and, by a little inferential reasoning, the size and distance of the object.

The first requisite in an eye, then, is a sentient mirror, which shall receive the images of objects and feel them.

This mirror must be of moderate and portable size, and well under control, so that it can be turned about.

All mirrors are perishable and delicate articles, liable to fracture; but when we conceive of a mirror whose surface and backing, and even its very frame, must be made not of hard glass, imperishable quicksilver, and durable wood, but of soft renewable tissues, and think how indispensable it is that it should be protected and kept in a state of repair, we must admit

VOL. I.

set into the rim of the watch-case, is called the cornea, or horny structure. Its greater projection or convexity is not a matter of accident, but highly important, for if it were not so, no near object could be seen distinctly.

Lining the inner

surface of the sclerotic is a thin membrane, which supports in its outer layers the larger arteries and veins which carry the blood to and from the front and inner parts of the eye, while it has on its inner surface a very thin pavement of flat, six-sided cells; each cell filled with black grains. The grains, and even the cells which contain them, are so small and so closely set as to form what appears to any but a high magnifying power, a continuous thin black sheet, perfectly opaque. This membrane papers the inside of the eye as far forward as the place where the sclerotic joins the cornea, and is there connected firmly with this outer jacket by a strong ligament and muscle. Before it reaches this point, however, it is puckered into somewhat irregular fore-and-aft folds. Beyond this point the choroid, as this membrane is called, is continued as a freelyhanging curtain, shaped like a quoit, that is, round and opaque,

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with a hole in the middle of it, which is opposite the middle of the cornea, or window of the eye.

From the same circle of attachment, but internal to the curtain before-named, is suspended, or rather held, by a ligament, a perfectly transparent body shaped like a lentil, that is, with two convex but flattened surfaces. The quoit-like curtain is called the iris, and the disc the crystalline lens. The lens is slung at some little distance from the cornea, leaving a chamber, which is filled with watery fluid, which bathes both sides of the iris. Behind the lens, and occupying the larger part of the hollow of the eye, is a denser liquid, contained in a thin, perfectly. transparent membrane, which not only encircles it, but sends in partitions from its outer wall to divide the liquid into compartments, so that when the eye is cut into, the humour does not run out, but seems to be of the consistence of clear jelly. Both the liquid and capsule are so transparent that they are called the hyaloid membrane and vitreous humour, or the glassy membrane and humour.

All the main parts of the eye have now been described except the essential one for which all the others are made, namely, the retina: that wonderful stratum of nervous matter which receives and transmits to the brain all luminous impressions, the glories of colour, the splendid imagery of the earth, and the soft radiance of the sky.

The retina lies between the choroid and vitreous humour. It lines the choroid as closely as that membrane lines the sclerotic, and so covers the whole back part of the eye.

The retina (or sentient mirror), thin as it is, has been found under the microscope to consist of many layers of diverse structure. Not to descend into great minuteness, it may be said to consist of an outer layer of cylindrical bodies, called, from their shape, rods and cones, which run perpendicularly to the surface of junction between retina and choroid. These bodies are the instruments by which the rays are noted. It would seem that each rod or cone conveys but one impression, so that while the image of an external object may be made very small on the retina, and yet distinctly seen, because of the minuteness of these bodies, yet the image must cover a certain number of them to be an image at all. In other words, if it only covered one, the impression would be that of a single point of light.

Next comes the granular layer, the office of which is no further | known than that similar structures are found wherever impressions received by the senses are modified. The innermost layer consists of nerve-fibres, which convey the impressions in some such way as the telegraph wires convey their messages. These all run to one point in the back part of the eyeball, a little on the inner or nose side of the axis, and there pass through the choroid and sclerotic, which are pierced by a great many holes, and are united behind into the optic nerve, and this runs to the brain, first, however, being joined by its fellow from the other eye, and then separating from it again, having received some of the strands of this nervous cord, and given up some of its own in return.

Let us now trace the course of a number of rays reflected from a single point in an object, before they reach the retina (see Fig. 2). These rays as they come from a single point are, of course, diverging. They strike, therefore, all over the surface of the cornea, and as they pass through it are gathered somewhat together. They then pass the aqueous humour with a slightly altered course. The outer ones are cut off by the opaque iris, but the central ones pass through the lens, which rapidly gathers them together, and they are then transmitted through the vitreous humour, all the time converging until they meet at a point exactly in or on the retina.

In saying that they meet exactly on the retina, it is meant that they will do so if the adjustment is perfect. If it be imperfect, so that the rays unite in a point either before the retina, or would unite behind it if they could traverse the choroid, the image is blurred and indistinct.

The problem of how to get a distinct image, of course, is more difficult, when the points from which the light proceeds are numerous, as from any object of appreciable form. To obtain this, the surface of the cornea, the hind and front face of the lens, and the face of the retina, must all be of definite and regular curves, or the figure would be distorted. If the cornea hal o much, the object can only be seen at a short disfrom this cause some persons have to lay their page before they can read print. If it bulges

too little, distinct images of near objects are impossible. If the crystalline lens is too dry, or too moist, it becomes clouded with hard or soft cataract. If the pigment be not of sufficient quantity in the choroid, vision is interfered with; and from this cause albinos, or persons whose hair and skin are deficient in colouring matter, are dazzled in ordinary daylight.

Further, if the retina, or part of it fail, as it sometimes does, from some cause too subtle to be found out, the object is seen only in part; thus, some persons have this peculiar affection of half the retina, so that when they look directly at an object, they only see the half of it.

The retina, perfect in all its ether functions, may not discriminate colour. The writer once played a game at croquet with a gentleman, who disclosed his infirmity thus: Two balls were lying together one red, and the other green. He asked which was his, and being told the red one, asked which red one? On another occasion the writer was looking at a brightlycoloured geological map. A stranger who looked with him soon showed that he was quite unaware that it was other than the ordinary ordnance map.

These defects of vision call marked attention to the perfection of the instrument of vision, when perfect, as it is in most cases.

It would be difficult to determine whether the eye were made for light, or light for the eye; but that the Creator of the one was cognisant of all the wonderful qualities of the other, admits of no doubt; and this goes far to prove that the Creator of the one must have been the designer of the other.

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THESE two words form what is called a proposition; they form a simple proposition. Proposition is a word of Latin origin, signifying something that is put before you. As being something that is put before you, it is a statement; it is a statement of a fact or a thought; a statement of something in the mind, or something out of the mind. Here the statement is that Alfred reads. Such a statement is also termed a sentence. Sentence is also from the Latin, and signifies a form of words comprising a thought or sentiment. These words, then-namely, sentence, proposition, and statement, have the same signification; and they each denote an utterance, the utterance of a fact, an idea, an emotion. Observe that both words are essential to the proposition. Take away Alfred, you then have reads; but reads is no proposition, for nothing is stated. Take away reads, you leave Alfred; but Alfred by itself says nothing, makes no statement, and therefore forms no proposition or sentence. The two words must concur to make a proposition. If so, less than two words do not make a proposition; and a proposition or sentence may consist of not more than two words.

In these simple statements you have in the germ the substance of the doctrine of sentences. If you understand what I have now said, you have laid the foundation for a thorough acquaintance with language in general, and with the English language in particular; for to a form of words similar in simplicity to that which stands at the head of this lesson is all speech reducible; and that model presents the germ out of which are evolved the long and involved sentences of our old English divines, and the full and lofty eloquence of Milton's immortal essay on behalf of the liberty of the press.

The sentence as it stands is what is called an affirmative proposition; that is, it affirms or declares something-it affirms or declares that Alfred reads. The term affirmative is used in opposition to the term negative. Negative propositions are those in which something is denied. An affirmative may become a negative proposition by the introduction of the adverb not; thus, Alfred reads not. In English it is more common to employ also the emphatic does, as Alfred does not read. You thus see that the words does (do, or dost, as may be required) and not convert an affirmative into a negative proposition. Sentences in which a question is asked we term interrogative; as, does Alfred read? Here by the help of the emphatic form does, and the inversion of the terms does and Alfred, we make an affirmative into an interrogative sentence. If into this last sentence we introduce the negative not, we have an interrogative negative

FORMS OF A PROPOSITION.

1. Affirmative.

2. Negative.

3. Interrogative.

4. Interrogative Negative.

Alfred reads.

Alfred does not read.

Does Alfred read?
Does not Alfred read?

sentence, as Does not Alfred read? We put these four forms of other qualifications might be stated; but here, at least, instead a proposition together. of entering into them, it will be better to put the statement in its most general form, a form in which it will embrace all particular cases, and render qualification unnecessary. I say, then, that in every sentence there must be a subject and a verb. I have thus set before you a new term. That term I must explain. Subject is a Latin word, and denotes that which receives, that which lies under, is liable or exposed to; from sub, under, and jacio, I throw, I place; in the passive, I lie. Accordingly, the subject of a proposition is that to which the action declared in the verb is ascribed. Hence, the subject of a proposition is the agent, the actor, the doer. The subject of a proposition answers to the question who? or what? as, who reads? Answer: Alfred reads. The term subject is used with special reference to the corresponding term, predicate. The predicate of a proposition is that which is attributed to the subject. What is attributed in our model sentence? This, namely, that Alfred reads. Reads," then, is here the predicate, or that which is ascribed to, or asserted of Alfred. Hence you see the propriety of the term subject, since Alfred is subject to the averment that he reads. Now, in the grammatical construction of the sentence, it matters not whether you say Alfred reads, or he reads. In both cases you have a subject and verb, or predicate; and consequently you have a complete enunciation of thought, or a perfect sentence. The sentence thus analysed and explained may be set forth in this form :

You thus see an example of the ease and extent with which the original form may be changed and multiplied. The proposition, Alfred reads, is a simple proposition. Propositions are either simple or compound. Compound propositions are made up of two or more simple propositions. Of compound propositions I shall speak in detail hereafter. Here only a few words may be allowed, in order to illustrate what is meant by a simple proposition. If I were to say, When Alfred reads, he is listened to, I should employ a compound proposition. In these words there are two statements, and consequently two sentences. These two statements are, Alfred reads, and Alfred is listened to. The two statements, united by the term when, constitute a compound sentence. In one form, at least, a compound proposition may easily be mistaken for a simple proposition; namely, in this-Alfred reads and writes. Here, in reality, we have a compound sentence, for, when analysed, these words are equivalent to these two statements-Alfred reads, and Alfred writes. There being in the sentence these two statements, the proposition is compound.

Let us now consider the two words in their own individual character-Alfred reads. The first obviously represents a person, the second as clearly represents an act. Now, in grammar, words which represent persons and things are called nouns ; and words which represent acts are called verbs. Noun is a Latin term, and signifies name; hence you see the noun is the name of any person or thing; and were we as wise as were the Latins, we should not employ a foreign word, but call nouns simply names. Thus Alfred is the name of a person. Book, also, is a name; so is house; so is pen, so is paper; these are each the name or vocal sign by which Englishmen distinguish and agree to call these objects severally. Nor is there any mystery in the term verb. Here, too, we have a Latin term which signifies simply word. With the Latins the verb was the word; that is, the chief word in a sentence. By us the verb might be termed the word. Had English grammarians employed as their scientific terms words of Saxon origin, the study of English grammar would have been very easy. We shall endeavour to simplify it by translating the Latin terms, unhappily now become indispensable, into their English equivalents. That the verb is the word, the chief word of a sentence, you may learn by reflecting on the proposition, Alfred reads. It is reads, too, distinguishes this statement from other statements, as Alfred runs, Alfred sings.

you see, that forms the very essence of the statement. Reads,

Now let the reader look back on the several instances of propositions I have given, and endeavour to ascertain what is the quality in which they all agree. They have a common quality. That quality is averment. They all aver or declare something: This they do by means of their verbs. Accordingly, averment is the essential quality of the verb. Every verb is a word which makes an averment. Here, then, we learn that the noun names, and the verb avers. By these tokens may all nouns and all verbs be known. Whatever names is a noun; whatever avers is a verb. Chair is a noun, because it is the name of an object; stands is a verb, because it avers or declares something of chair; and the union of the noun and the verb, as chair stands, forms a proposition.

Sentences, then, in their simplest form consist of a noun and a verb. A noun and a verb are indispensable. Whatever more you may have, you cannot have anything less than a noun and a verb in a sentence or proposition. As a substitute for the noun you may have a pronoun. Pronoun, again, is a word of Latin origin, signifying a word which stands instead of a noun. Thus we may put the pronoun he instead of Alfred; e.g. (these are the initials of two Latin words, meaning exempli gratiâ, for example):

Alfred reads,

He reads,

where he holds the place of Alfred. We must accordingly qualify our statement, and say that sentences, in their simplest form, consist of a verb and a noun or pronoun. One or two

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As the subject undergoes a change by passing, when necessary, into he, so may the predicate be modified. Instead of a predicate in one word, you may have a predicate in two words, or by substitute a verb and an adjective; as Alfred is good.

the meaning of adjective? Adjective in Latin signifies that Another new term demands another explanation. What is which is added to, or thrown to (ad, to; and jacio, I throw). To what are adjectives thrown or added? To nouns, as in this stand alone. They perform their office in being added to or instance. Adjectives, therefore, in their very nature, cannot

connected with nouns.

to qualify the meaning of those nouns, and to answer to the
question of what kind. What kind of a boy is Alfred? Answer,
"he is a good boy." An adjective, then, is an epithet (a Greek
word, which denotes that which is attributed to a noun or a
and hard are epithets, or adjectives, inasmuch as they assign the
person); e.g., green fields, tall men, hard rocks, where green, tall,
quality of their several subjects. Now, what we call qualities
we call also attributes. The attributes of a body are its qualities.
attributed or ascribed to an object.
Attribute is a word from the Latin, denoting that which is
describe the qualities or attributes of the persons or things they
Adjectives, therefore,
attribute of the proposition; thus,
are connected with. In the instance given above, good is the

They are connected with nouns in order

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you observe that reads and is good hold the same place and perform the same function in the two propositions. They in each case form the predicate of the sentence. The predicate is that which is predicated, declared, or averred of the subject of a proposition. In the former instance, reads is that which is averred; in the latter, is good is that which is averred. Mark that neither is nor good alone forms the predicate, for what is asserted is not that Alfred is-that is, exists-but that he is good. Accordingly, the predicate here consists of two words-namely, is good; but in the former example it consists of merely one word—that is, reads. Of these two words, good, we have seen, is the attribute. It remains to state that the word is forms what is called the copula, a Latin term which may here be rendered

Subject.
Alfred

Alfred

Predicate.
reads.

Copula.

is

Attribute.
good.

link. The term describes its office. The word is in the is not a nominative case. Cases pertain to nouns, moods to sentence is the subject with the predicate. The whole may verbs. be exhibited thus:But here we meet with an instance of the complexity and obscurity that have been brought into English grammar by attachment to Latin forms. Our nouns in their actual condition have but one case, the genitive; or, if the nominative be allowed to be a case, then two cases are the utmost that our nouns can be said to have. Why should more be assigned to them? It may be doubted, indeed, whether what is called the nominative can be properly termed a case, for it differs from the Latin nominative, which is .formed from a stem common to all the cases through which the noun passes; whereas in English the nominative is the stem itself. However this may be in English, nouns now possess no more than two cases. This fact is in no way affected by the allegation that the Anglo-Saxon, the mother of the English, has several cases. It is with the daughter, not with the mother, that we are here concerned.

By ordinary grammarians what we have termed the subject is called the nominative case. The employment of such a term is objectionable, for it is incorrect by not being sufficiently comprehensive. Take, for instance, the proposition, To ride is healthful. To ride is the subject of the proposition, and the subject, therefore, to the verb is. But is to ride a nominative ccse? Ask the grammarians, and they will tell you that it is the infinitive mood of the verb ride. If an infinitive mood, it

COPY-SLIP NO. 5.-THE LETter 1.

it

COPY-SLIP NO. 6.-COMBINATION OF THE LETTERS U, i.

COPY-SLIP NO. 7.-COMBINATION OF THE LETTERS i, t.

LESSONS IN PENMANSHIP.-III.

We now place before our readers the letter 1, the last of the four letters that are formed either by the simple bottom-turn itself, or by some slight modification of it. Proceeding by a regular system of gradation, the self-teacher has been led first to make the bottom-turn within the horizontal lines that contain, as we stated in our last lesson, what may be termed the body of any letter that has a head, loop, or tail extending above or below these lines; and then, after making the simple bottomturn, he was shown how to turn this stroke into the letter i by placing a dot above it, to form the letter u by the combination of two bottom turns, and to make the letter t by beginning the thick down-stroke a little above the upper horizontal line, and crossing it just above the same line by a fine hair-stroke. He must now proceed to make the letter 1, beginning the downstroke at the line e e, which is placed at a distance above the line a a nearly equal to the distance between the lines a a, b b. The chief difficulty that the learner has to encounter in making the letter 1 arises from the length of the down-stroke, which obliges him to bring his pen downwards in the same straight line for a distance nearly half as long again as the letter t. At first his hand will shake, and, as it is manifestly much easier to rt stroke than a long one, his early attempts at ter 1 will not be quite so straight and even, pies of the shorter letters arising out of the success, however, greater or less, as it may be,

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in making this letter will afford an excellent test of his progress, and show him whether or not he be holding his pen in the proper way and sitting in the proper position. If he find no difficulty in repeating the letter 1 several times, and can do it with ease, making a straight and well-formed stroke with an equal pressure of the pen from top to bottom until it begins to narrow, he may be sure that his position is correct, and that he is holding his pen properly; but if, on the other hand, he find, after a few trials, that the down-strokes of his letters are uneven and crooked, owing to the shaking of his hand, and he feel pain in the ball of the thumb and the thick muscles on the opposite side of the palm of the hand, he may be sure that his position and the way in which he holds his pen is stiff, constrained, and unnatural, and requires amendment. To effect this, he must once more turn to the directions given for holding the pen, etc., in our first lesson in Penmanship, and carefully regulating the position of his hand and body by these instructions, he will soon discover the points in which he is at fault, and gradually acquire greater ease and freedom in writing.

After accomplishing the letter 1, the learner may proceed to combinations of the letters that he has already made singly, and for this purpose we have furnished him with copy-slips, showing combinations of the letters u, i and i, t. Let him copy these and all the examples that we shall give him in future lessons again and again, remembering that in no branch of learning is constant practice more necessary, especially to the self-teacher, than in Penmanship.

1

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