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not the intention of the framers of the Constitution, or of the people who ratified it, to supersede those governnents, or, within their proper sphere, to weaken them. Experience had conclusively shown that the country needed a stronger National Government, and this the people undertook to provide. So they undertook to accomplish in the Constitution the objects that are enumerated in the Preamble.

"We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America."

The Constitution also formally denied some powers to the United States and some to the States; that is, it forbade the one or the other to exercise the powers so prohibited. (See Article I, sections 9, 10.) The understanding was that the mass of powers not delegated to the Union exclusively, or forbidden to the States, continued to remain in the hands of the people in their State capacities. Moreover, this understanding was expressly asserted in Article X of the Amend

ments.

Accordingly, the Government of the United States must be studied under two aspects, one National and one State. The case is quite different from what it would be in England or France, both of which countries have single or unitary governments. This duality makes the study more interesting, but more difficult, and suggests the question whether it should begin with the Nation or the State. The answer must be deferred until still other facts have been taken into account.

office under the government, and general participation in public affairs are political rights. These two classes of rights do not necessarily exist together; civil rights are sometimes secured where men do not vote, while men sometimes vote where civil rights are not secured; moreover, both kinds of rights may be forfeited by the oitizen through his own bad conduct. Evidently political rights are subordinate to civil rights. Men partic

ipate in govermental affairs as a means of securing the great ends for which civil society exists. But the great point is this republican government can be carried on successfully only when the mass of the citizens make their power felt in political affairs; in other words, perform their political duties. To vote in the interest of good government, is an important political duty that the citizen owes to the state. Still other political duties are to give the legally constituted authorities one's moral support, and to serve the body politic when called upon to do so. These duties grow out of the corresponding rights, and to teach them is an essential part of sound education.

It has been remarked that good government rests upon the facts of human nature and society, that such a government is a complicated machine, and that it is an interesting subject of study. It is also to be observed that the successful operation of such a government calls for high intellectual and moral qualities, first on the part of statesmen and public men, and secondly on the part of the citizens themselves. There are examples of an ignorant and corrupt people enjoying measurable prosperity under a wise and good monarch; but there is no example of a democratic or republican state long prospering unless there is a good standard of intelligence and virtue. This is one of the lessons that Washington

impressed in his Farewell Address: "In proportion as the structure of a government gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opinion shall be intelligent."

Government deals with man in his general or social relations. Robinson Crusoe living on his island neither had, nor could have had, a government. Man is born for society; or, as Aristotle said, "man has a social instinct implanted in him by nature." Again, man is political as well as social; or, as Aristotle says, "man is more of a political animal than bees, or any other gregarious animal." Hence the same writer's famous maxim, "Man is born to be a citizen."

These last remarks bring before the mind, as a subject of study, man in his relations to his fellow men. The study of man in these relations has both practical and disciplinary value. At first man is thoroughly individual and egotistical. The human baby is as selfish as the cub of the bear or of the fox. There is no more exacting tyrant in the world. No matter at what cost, his wants must be supplied. Such is his primary nature. But this selfish creature is endowed with a higher, an ideal nature. At first he knows only rights, and these he greatly magnifies; but progressively he learns, what no mere animal can learn, to curb his appetites, desires, and feelings, and to regard the rights, interests, and feelings of others. To promote this process, as we have already explained, government exists. In other words, the human being is capable of learning his relations to the great social body of which he is a member. Mere individualism, mere egotism, is compelled to recognize the force and value of altruistic conviction and sentiment. And this lesson, save alone his relations to the Supreme Being, is the greatest lesson

office under the government, and general participation in public affairs are political rights. These two classes of rights do not necessarily exist together; civil rights are sometimes secured where men do not vote, while men sometimes vote where civil rights are not secured; moreover, both kinds of rights may be forfeited by the oitizen through his own bad conduct. Evidently political rights are subordinate to civil rights. Men participate in govermental affairs as a means of securing the great ends for which civil society exists. But the great point is this-republican government can be carried on successfully only when the mass of the citizens make their power felt in political affairs; in other words, perform their political duties. To vote in the interest of good government, is an important political duty that the citizen owes to the state. Still other political duties are to give the legally constituted authorities one's moral support, and to serve the body politic when called upon to do so. These duties grow out of the corresponding rights, and to teach them is an essential part of sound education.

It has been remarked that good government rests upon the facts of human nature and society, that such a government is a complicated machine, and that it is an interesting subject of study. It is also to be observed that the successful operation of such a government calls for high intellectual and moral qualities, first on the part of statesmen and public men, and secondly on the part of the citizens themselves. There are examples of an ignorant and corrupt people enjoying measurable prosperity under a wise and good monarch; but there is no example of a democratic or republican state long prospering unless there is a good standard of intelligence and virtue. This is one of the lessons that Washington