which our present dual or federal system of government turns. The American, therefore, as has been said, has always had two loyalties and two patriotisms.

315. Division of Authority. In general, the line that separated the two jurisdictions was pretty plainly marked. It had been traced originally in the charters and patents, and afterwards usage, precedent, and legislation served to render it the more distinct. The Colonial governments looked after purely Colonial matters; the Home government looked after those matters that affected the British Empire. The Colonies emphasized one side of the double system, the King and Parliament the other side. There were frequent disagreements and disputes; still the Colonists and the Mother Country managed to get on together with a good degree of harmony until Parliament, by introducing a change of policy, brought on a conflict that ended in separation.

316. Causes of Separation. The right to impose and collect duties on imports passing the American custom houses, the Home government had from the first asserted and the Colonies conceded. But local internal taxation had always been left to the Colonial legislatures. Beginning soon after 1760, or about the close of the war with France, which had left the Mother Country burdened with a great debt, Parliament began to enforce such taxes upon the people directly. These taxes the Colonies resisted on the ground that they were imposed by a body in which they were not represented or their voice heard. Taxation without representation they declared to be tyranny. At the same time, the acts relative to American navigation were made more rigorous, and vigorous measures were taken to enforce them. In the meantime the Colonies had greatly increased in

numbers and in wealth, and the idea began to take root that such a people, inhabiting such a country, could not permanently remain dependent upon England but must become an independent power. The Stamp tax was one of the objectionable taxes.

317. Independence.-The Home government dropped or changed some of its obnoxious measures, but still adhered to its chosen policy. New and more obnoxious measures were adopted, as the Massachusetts Bay Bill and the Boston Port Bill. The Congresses of 1765 and 1774 protested, but to no real purpose. Some of the Colonies, like Massachusetts, began to take measures looking to their defense against aggression; and the attempt of General Gage, commanding the British army in Boston, to counteract these measures led to the battle of Lexington, April 19, 1775, and immediately brought on the Revolutionary war. All attempts at composing the differences failing, and the theater of war continuing to widen, the American Congress, on July 4, 1776, cut the ties that bound the Thirteen Colonies to England. After eight years of war the British government acknowledged American Independence.

318. The Political Effects of Independence.-The Declaration of Independence involved two facts of the greatest importance. One was the declaration that the Colonies were free and independent States, absolved from all allegiance to the British crown. The other was the formation of the American Union. The original members of the Union as States and the Union itself were due to the same causes. The language of the Declaration is, "We, ......the representatives of the United States of America, in general congress assembled, . . do, in the name, and by the authority, of the good people of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare" their independence.

The States took their separate position as a nation among the powers of the earth. Thus, before the Revolution there were Colonies united politically only by their common dependence upon England; since the Revolution there have been States united more or less closely in one federal state or union.

319. The Continental Congress.-The body that put forth the Declaration of Independence, known in history as the Continental Congress, had, in 1775, assumed control of the war in defense of American rights. It had adopted as a National army the forces that had gathered at Boston, had made Washington its commander-in-chief, and had done still other things that only governments claiming nationality can do. And so it continued to act. First the American people, and afterwards foreign governments, recognized the Congress as a National government.

But it was a revolutionary government, resting upon popular consent or approval, and not upon a writ ten constitution. A government of a more regular and permanent form was called for, and to meet this call Congress, in 1777, framed a written constitution to which was given the name, "Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union." Still Congress had no authority to give this constitution effect, and could only send it to the States and ask them for their ratifications. Some delay ensued, and it was not until March 1, 1781, that the last ratification was secured and the Articles went into operation.

320. The Confederation.-The government that the Articles provided for was very imperfect in form. It consisted of but one branch, a legislature of a single house called Congress. Such executive powers as the Government possessed were vested in this body. The States appointed delegates in such manner as they saw fit, and had an equal voice in deciding all questions. Nine States were

necessary to carry the most important measures, and to amend the Articles required unanimity. In powers the Government was quite as defective as in form. It could not enforce its own will upon the people, but was wholly dependent upon the States. It could not impose taxes or draft men for the army, but only call upon the States for money and men; and if the States refused to furnish them, which they often did, Congress had no remedy. Much of the disaster and distress attending the war grew out of the weakness of Congress, and when peace came, the States became still more careless, while Congress became weaker than ever. Meantime the state of the country was as unsatisfactory as that of the Government. The State governments were efficient, but they looked almost exclusively to their own interests. Commercial disorder and distress prevailed throughout the country. As early therefore as 1785 the conviction was forcing itself upon many men's minds that something must be done to strengthen the Government or the Union would fall to pieces.

321. Calling of the Federal Convention.-In 1785 Commissioners representing Virginia and Maryland met at Alexandria, in the former State, to frame a compact concerning the navigation of the waters that were common to the two States. They reported to their respective Legislatures that the two States alone could do nothing, but that general action was necessary. The next year commissioners representing five States met at Annapolis to consider the trade of the country, and these commissioners concluded that nothing could be done to regulate trade separate and apart from other general interests. So they recommended that a general convention should be held at Philadelphia to consider the situation of the United States, to devise further pro

visions to render the Articles of Confederation adequate to the needs of the Union, and to recommend action that, when approved by Congress and ratified by the State Legislatures, would effectually provide for the same. This recommendation was directed to the Legislatures of the five States, but copies of it were sent to Congress also and to the Governors of the other eight States. So in February, 1787, Congress adopted a resolution inviting the States to send delegates to such a convention to be held in Philadelphia in May following. And the Legislatures of all the States but Rhode Island did so.

322. The Constitution Framed.-On May 25, 1787, the Convention organized, with the election of Washington as President. It continued in session until September 17, when it completed its work and sent our present National Constitution, exclusive of the fifteen Amendments, to Congress. In framing this document great difficulties were encountered. Some delegates favored a government of three branches; others a government of a single branch. Some delegates wanted a legislature of two houses; some of only one house. Some delegates wished the representation in the houses to be according to the population of the States; others were determined that it should be equal, as in the Old Congress. Differences as to the powers to be exercised by Congress were equally serious. There were also controverted questions as to revenue, the control of commerce, the slave trade, and many other matters. Furthermore, the opinions that the delegates held were controlled in great degree by State considerations. The large States wanted representation to be according to population; a majority of the small ones insisted that it should be equal. The commercial States of the North said Congress should control the